"During the afternoon of a bright and hushed day last summer, when the sky shone brightly above, I had been walking alone, in blissful spirits, through an especially pastoral landscape of trees and fields; and soon found myself, as the afternoon light dimmed, catching the outline of the pleasant home of my girlfriend, Nancy. I'm not sure how it happened, but, as soon as I saw her place, a feeling of complete joy took over. I use the word, 'complete,' because the feeling was unblemished by any sense of anxiety that commonly infects happy thoughts. I stared at her house in front of me, that familiar house, and the leafy trees that surrounded it, upon the newly painted exterior and the French windows and some hanging branches above and the chirping birds perched on them with a feeling of supreme joy unlike anything like it except perhaps the quiet mood after prayer, the sweet peace of heavenly thoughts and sympathy with a celestial harmony. There was a feeling of calm and comfort in my heart and a perfect serenity of thought that no bodily ill or fever or headache or other impediment could mar with pain or misery."
By Paul Simao
ATLANTA (Reuters) - The U.S. government's effort to cut the adult smoking rate to 12 percent or less by 2010 will fail unless most states increase funding for anti-tobacco programs, federal health officials said on Wednesday.
Topic sentence, with commonplace, Authority (quoting a figure of authority). Also this uses Cause-Effect.
The warning by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention accompanied a study showing the vast majority of states in 2003 were nowhere near the nation's ambitious smoking target.
Documentation ("study").
The smoking rate among states last year ranged from a high of 30.8 percent in Kentucky to a low of 12 percent in Utah, the only one to reach the federal target. Utah has a heavy proportion of Mormons, who are religiously opposed to smoking.
Documentation (though not cited) and Cause-Effect (Mormons are heavily opposed to smoking).
About 440,000 Americans die each year from lung cancer and other diseases related to tobacco use, making smoking the leading preventable cause of death in the United States, according to the federal government.
Cause-Effect. Authority ("the federal government").
"It's not a matter of not knowing what to do, it's a matter of not doing what we know works," said Terry Pechacek, associate director for science in the CDC's office of smoking and health.
Authority. Degree ("doing is better than knowing what not to do").
"Unfortunately, a very small number of our states are investing in the types of programs that we know can reduce the level of smoking," Pechacek added.
Documentation. Authority. Possible/Impossible ("that we know can reduce the level of smoking").
States spent $541.1 million on anti-tobacco programs in 2003, a 28 percent reduction from 2001 and less than 3 percent of the estimated $19 billion they expected to receive from tobacco excise taxes and tobacco settlement money. The CDC did not say how much the states spent in 2002.
Documentation ("the CDC"). Comparison (2003 and 2001).
Tobacco companies agreed in 1997 and 1998 to pay $206 billion as part of a landmark legal settlement with a number of states that had sued the industry to recoup the health-care costs of treating sick smokers.
Documentation. Example ("Tobacco companies"). Precedent ("they paid $260 billion").
For the 2004 fiscal year, only Arkansas, Delaware, Maine and Mississippi were investing the minimum per capita amount recommended by the CDC for tobacco-control.
Examples.
A related study published by the CDC on Wednesday found air contaminants linked to second-hand smoke fell 84 percent in 20 bars, restaurants and other venues in western New York shortly after a state indoor smoking ban went into effect in 2003.
Cause-Effect. Example. Documentation.
The dramatic drop in levels of respirable suspended particles, an accepted marker for second-hand smoke, should encourage other states and the District of Columbia to pass similar indoor smoking bans, researchers said.
Definition ("an accepted marker"). Antecedent-Consequence ("should encourage"). Authority ("researchers").
An estimated 35,000 non-smokers in the United States die every year from heart disease caused by second-hand smoke. Three thousand die from lung cancer caused by such exposure.
Cause-Effect. Documentation.
The first song, Sleigh Ride is rich in melody, with no fewer than three main themes, including a strong verse, chorus, and bridge (the verse appears after the chorus instead of before it).
We note first the use of direct address ("just hear" and "come on") as well as the imitated sounds ("jingle-ing," etc.). Then the nice use of dialogue, "Yoo-hoo!" which adds simple. The idiom, "lovely weather" is an example of how "simple" can be "good" too. Other dialogue follows ("Giddyap!"), then a metaphor, "wonderland," which admittedly might be not that original (Winter Wonderland is an older song). But "wintry fairy land" is a little more inventive. Then we get the strong verb, "gliding," which adds force to the lyric. "Nice and rosy" is called an "hendyadis" in rhetoric, replacing an adverb with an adjective and conjunction, so that "nicely rosy" becomes "nice and rosy." It makes for more vivid language. "Comfy cozy" is an invented phrase (comfy=comfortable), adding more color. "Snuggled" is another example of a strong verb. "Birds of a feather" is an example of use of a proverb to develop an idea. "Before us" and "chorus" is a good example of a feminine rhyme. "Farmer Gray" in the song's verse adds a proper noun (name) making the song stronger. "Perfect" is repeated for rhetorical effect. "Singing" and "sing" use different forms of a word for effect, while "single" echoes the sound of both. "Stop" is nicely placed when the line stops, for effect. So is "pop," while adding sound imitation. Concrete nouns are used in "coffee" (though a bit common) and "pumpkin pie" (less common, and seasonly appropriate). Note how "coffee" would have been improved if "cider" or "eggnog" had been used instead. So there's a weakness in the song. Because the other two would have been less common and more seasonly specific. Then note another strong use of a proper noun (name), "Currier and Ives," famous for their sentimental prints. Another nice repetition of "things." Note how deliberate repetition is different from careless repetition, the one being effective writing, the other ineffective.
Sleigh Ride: Just hear those sleigh bells jingle-ing, Ring ting tingle-ing too. Come on, it's lovely weather For a sleigh ride together with you. Outside the snow is falling And friends are calling "You Hoo." Come on, it's lovely weather
For a sleigh ride together with you. Giddy-yap giddy-yap giddy-yap let's go.Let's look at the snow. We're riding in a wonderland of snow. Giddy-yap giddy-yap giddy-yap it's grand Just holding your hand. We're gliding along with the song Of a wintry fairy land. Our cheeks are nice and rosy And comfy cozy are we.We're snuggled up together like two Birds of a feather would be.Let's take the road before us And sing a chorus or two.Come on, it's lovely weather For a sleigh ride together with you. There's a birthday party at the home of Farmer Gray It'll be the perfect ending of a perfect day We'll be singing the songs we love to sing without a single stop. At the fireplace while we watch the chestnuts pop! Pop! Pop! Pop! There's a happy feeling nothing in the world can buy When they pass around the coffee and the pumpkin pie. It'll nearly be like a picture print by Currier and Ives. These wonderful things are the things We remember all through our lives.
Baby It's Cold Outside
I really can't stay. But baby it's cold outside. I've got to go 'way. But baby it's cold outside. This evening has been
Been hoping that you'd drop in So very nice I'll hold your hands they're just like ice. My mother will start to worry Beautiful what's your hurry? And father will be pacing the floor Listen to the fireplace roar So really I'd better scurry Beautiful please don't hurry Well maybe just a half a drink more Put some records on while I pour. The neighbors might think But baby it's bad out there Say what's in this drink? No cabs to be had out there I wish I knew how Your eyes are like starlight now To break this spell I'll take your hat, your hair looks swell. I oughta say no no no sir Mind if I move in closer? At least I'm gonna say that I tried What's the sense of hurting my pride I really can't stay Oh baby don't hold out Ah, but it's cold outside Baby it's cold outside I simply must go But baby it's cold outside The answer is No Ooh baby it's cold outside The welcome has been How lucky that you dropped in So nice and warm Look out the window at that storm. My sister will be suspicious Gosh, your lips look delicious My brother will be there at the door Waves upon a tropical shore My maiden aunt's mind is vicious Gosh your lips are delicious Well maybe just a cigarette more Never such a blizzard before. I've got to get home But baby you'd freeze out there Say lend me a comb It's up to your knees out there You've really been grand I thrill when you touch my hand But don't you see How can you do this thing to me? There's bound to be talk tomorrow Think of my lifelong sorrow At least there will be plenty implied If you caught pneumonia and died I really can't stay Get over that old doubt, Baby it’s cold, baby it’s cold outside!
RAINDROPS ON ROSES AND WHISKERS ON KITTENS, BRIGHT COPPER KETTLES AND WARM WOOLEN MITTENS, BROWN PAPER PACKAGES TIED UP WITH STRINGS, THESE ARE A FEW OF MY FAVORITE THINGS, CREAM COLORED PONIES AND CRISP APPLE STRUDELS, DOOR BELLS AND SLEIGH BELLS AND SCHNITZEL WITH NOODLES, WILD GEESE THAT FLY WITH THE MOON ON THEIR WINGS,
THESE ARE A FEW OF MY FAVORITE THINGS, GIRLS IN WHITE DRESSES WITH BLUE SATIN SASHES,
SNOWFLAKES THAT STAY ON MY NOSE AND EYE LASHES, SILVER WHITE WINTERS THAT MELT INTO SPRINGS, THESE ARE A FEW OF MY FAVORITE THINGS, WHEN THE DOG BITES, WHEN THE BEE STINGS, WHEN I’M FEELING SAD, I SIMPLY REMEMBER MY FAVORITE THINGS, AND THEN I DON’T FEEL SO BAD.
Its a marshmallow world in the winter When the snow comes to cover the ground Its the time for play, its a whipped cream day I wait for it the whole year round. Those are marshmallow clouds being friendly In the arms of the evergreen trees And the sun is red like a pumpkin head Its shining so your nose wont freeze. The world is your snowball, see how it grows Thats how it goes whenever it snows The world is your snowball just for a song Get out and roll it along Its a yum-yummy world made for sweethearts Take a walk with your favorite girl Its a sugar date, what if spring is late In winter its a marshmallow world.
The Christmas Song
Chestnuts roasting on an open fire, Jack Frost nipping at your nose, Yuletide carols being sung by a choir, And folks dressed up like Eskimos. Everybody knows a turkey and some mistletoe, Help to make the season bright, Tiny tots with their eyes all a-glow, Will find it hard to sleep tonight.They know that Santa's on his way
He's loaded lots of toys and goodies on his sleigh, And ev'ry mother's child is gonna spy, To see if reindeer really know how to fly. And so I'm offering this simple phrase, To kids from one to ninety-two, Although it's been said Many times, Many ways Merry Christmas to you. And so I'm offering this simple phrase, To kids from one to ninety-two, Although it's been said Many times, Many ways Merry Christmas to you.
City sidewalks, busy sidewalks Dressed in holiday style In the air there's a feeling of Christmas Children laughing, people passing Meeting smile after smile And on every street corner youll hear (Chorus): Silver bells, silver bells Its Christmas time in the city Ring-a-ling, hear them ring Soon it will be Christmas day. Strings of street lights, even stop lights Blink a bright red and green As the shoppers rush home with their treasures Hear the snow crunch, see the kids bunch This is Santa's big scene And above all this bustle you'll hear
Definition: I define/explain what Halloween is.
The holiday centers around the idea of ghosts. Now I divide the holiday into different parts. Among many activities practiced on this day, trick or treating is a favorite with younger children. Now I return to using the "topic" of definition, describing trick or treaters. These trick or treaters dress up in costumes designed for the Halloween occasion, such as ghosts, goblins, witches, and skeletons. Children knock on their neighbors' doors and request a "trick or treat."
Next I use "cause and effect" to explain what happens when children go trick or treating. Usually, neighbors reward the children with treats, including special Halloween candy that looks like corn, ordinary chocolate candy, or pennies. These are, of course, the lowest coinage in American money and not worth very much. However, if enough neighbors reward trick or treaters with these pennies, they add up and may be enough, in sum, to buy the latest CD of a child's favorite singer.
Now I use "contradicting," saying what Halloween is not and thus giving a better idea of what it is. Halloween is, as has been said, not a religious holiday. There is no special religious observance on this day. People don't think of God or Jesus or even go to church, [here I use comparison, comparing Halloween to Christmas] unlike, say, on Easter Sunday in the spring or Christmas Day in December.
Here I use antecedent/consequence, showing a before and after relationship between an older pagan holiday and the newer children's holiday. Yet Halloween comes from a pagan festival that may be thousands of years old, starting in Celtic culture, which worshipped all sorts of powers, both evil and good. These religious ideas were soon challenged by the Christian idea of a single good God, although in three forms (Father, Son, Holy Ghost).
The problem was, Christian missionaries, or people who preached the new religion, could not completely destroy these old beliefs, just like they could not destroy beliefs related to what is now called Christmas Day. So they had no choice but to accept Halloween as a harmless children's holiday.
This was not the original intent. "Halloween" means "Hallowed Evening," or "Holy Night." [Here I used "notation" or argument from what words mean.] This is the night before All Saints Day on November 1st. [This is another use of "cause/effect.] So the original purpose was to turn a "pagan" (country, heathen) holiday into a Chistian holiday.
However, this did not entirely work out as planned. [More cause/effect.] So religious Christians soon accepted Halloween, but turned it into a children's holiday, making it harmless fun.
Some religious people don't think that Halloween is harmless fun. They think it can lead to all kinds of problems. Regardless whether it is in fun or not, little children are encouraged to become witches, devils, and the walking dead. Some people think this is not a good way to bring up children with good values.
[Now I use testimony, quoting an imaginary scholar on the subject.] Dr. John Simon, a sociologist at Purdue University believes that Halloween may teach children wrong values. [In addition to testimony, I use a direct quotation, adding color to my testimony.] "They learn to be evil in costumes and may think it is alright to be evil regardless whether they're in a costume or not. Mothers should be careful what kinds of role models children form at such a young age. The Devil, however cute he may look on a five-year-old child, may not be the best role model for a child."
Formerly, some states used to outlaw Halloween as a pagan, not a Christian, holiday. [Here I use the topic of example.] For example, in the 19th century, there was a law, "preventing on the day known as Halloween, any public demonstration of sympathy or support, to be punished by a fine and possible imprisonment." [Just now, I used Testimony again, quoting an imaginary law rather than a person.] Whether the law was enforced or not is another matter.
[Comparison again.] In comparison, Christmas, an even more popular children's holiday, teaches better values, despite all the money spent on gift giving at this time. [Cause-effect.] Children are taught that it is the birthday of God's Son, who brought peace into the world as well as hope. And although there are a lot of gifts opened on Christmas morning, children usually go to church too and listen to a lecture, called a "sermon," on what Jesus' birth should mean to them, in terms of the church's values of faith, hope, and love.
These are ten sentences. Your composition goal is to make a single sentence out of these ten sentences. It can be done. Don't worry about the names. I can't do anything about it, although I was thinking of changing the names to simpler names. But what does it matter? "Joab" is the name of a person, while the other proper names are names of places, like Jerusalem. Have this assignment ready by next week.
Note: In my other (content) classes, I am careful about using big words. But not in my composition class. Because you should be building up your vocabulary too. So you've got to use your dictionary. This is one good way to help you to build your vocabulary.
SECOND ASSIGNMENT:
Go to the following web page. It is a site for Aesop's Fables. These are short stories (only a few lines in length). Find a fable you think you can handle. Then change it. I've given this exercise to my speech students, but with a different focus. Our exercise will be more total. My speech students have to add dialogue and make the sentences speakable. You composition students should add any details or even subplots, adjectives, adverbs, different diction (choice of words), even changing the characters' names. Anything. Go wild with this assignment. (Well, not too wild.)
Here's an example:
The Ass and His Driver
AN ASS, being driven along a high road, suddenly started off and
bolted to the brink of a deep precipice. While he was in the act
of throwing himself over, his owner seized him by the tail,
endeavoring to pull him back. When the Ass persisted in his
effort, the man let him go and said, "Conquer, but conquer to
your cost."
A willful beast must go his own way.
That was the original. Here's my version:
"It was a such a sweet and fine day. The birds were out choiring their morning tunes, the tulips blazed in bright purple under the rising sun, the breeze blew gently across my cheeks, and a bee hummed its honied secrets into my ear.
I had almost forgotten all my troubles, the unpaid bills, the broken motorcycle, and even my worn out shoes. In fact, I almost began to feel a little guilt.
"Do you deserve such a day as this?" I asked myself. After all, I did pass a red light the other day and gave many of my office mates colds when I refused to nurse mine at home. Besides, Charlie paid a lot of money on the last teppanyaki meal we had together and I still hadn't returned the favor. That was about six months ago.
So maybe that's why my euphoria was not fated to last.
It happened like this. I was driving my donkey, Duke, along a very high mountain. It being a nice day and all that, I was thinking very pleasant and peaceful thoughts about the lovely romantic dinner I was planning with my girlfriend, Nancy.
Suddenly that crazy donkey started running towards the cliff, as if he had just swallowed a pint of espresso. Or maybe he had scribbled a suicide note in the dust before I led him out of the stable!
"Stop! Stop!" I cried, as I raced him to the edge.
"Stop!" I continued. "Do you want to kill the both of us?"
I pulled his tail, I yanked his coat, I grabbed his saddle, I hugged his hind legs, and even twisted his ears. It was useless. After minutes of this tug-of-war, during which I scraped every bone in my body and almost fell down the mountain myself, I had enough.
After all, if an ass wishes to make an ass of himself, there's no stopping him.
What did I do with the original? First I elaborated, stretching out all the sentences, adding (what the Latins called "copia" as in "copious" or "a lot").
There are tricks to do that, as you can see here. One trick is a series of short phrases. Instead of saying someone is in love (abstract), say (concrete), "Bob sighed, he murmured nonsense when I spoke to him, then looked up at the stars and sighed again and took out a handkerchief and wiped tears that had begun to well up in his eyes, which seemed hardly to see me in front of him. He was in love!"
See how I expanded a short sentence that was in addition abstract and turned it instead into a series of phrases that were very concrete and specific (I did not say "he looked away" but "he looked at the stars," etc.).
Much of this expanding work was done with adding lower levels of generality, being more specific.
In addition, I added dialogue.
I also used proper nouns (Duke, George, Nancy) to make my writing concrete. Readers believe the writing is more true to life this way too.
I plotted a beginning and end. In other words, I made myself (or the story "I") an equal characters with the donkey. I also led to a clever ending, punning (word playing) on the word "ass," which means both "donkey" and "fool."
Much of my expansion came from adding to the setting too. Whereas the setting had a very small part to play in the original, it became part of the story in my version.
I also added humor: the idea of a donkey writing a suicide note.
So clever are the changes, that even if a person (like you) knows the original, they would never think of it. Just like many people go to movies and never think that the movie they've seen was based on a novel they knew well. It's like when jazz musicians take a pop song and, even though it's called by the name of that song, the listener can't hear much of a relationship. Only when the listener looks at the CD case do they realize they've just heard Embraceable You or Stardust, etc.
By the way, you should know by reading my version that, in principle, there is really no limit to what I can add to this, making a novel-length manuscript in little time. I can bring in more characters. Then I can do the same as the above: add dialogue to them, background to their lives, etc. Then they can bring in a car and suggest tying the donkey to the car and dragging him back. That can lead to other events, etc. to no end.
Now let's see if you can do something like this for next week. First go to the webpage. Find a fable. Copy it; change it like I did. Bring both copies to class. Be prepared to read it aloud if asked (even if not asked!).
Good luck.
2004/9/25
The China Post staff
Taiwan people born after 1980 more often than not hold a less serious attitude when finding a job.
Resumes provided by these young people often contain typos, slang and misused phrases, said Wu Jui-ying, the spokesperson of the 1111 Human Resources Bank.
According to Wu, the content of the resumes are as random as current television variety shows. For example, a job seeker wrote in his resume that he is from Tainan, the town where President Chen Sui-bian was shot. Another claimed that his dad still loves him, although he always beat him when he was young, which is totally irrelevant to the resume.
Pan Asia Human Resources Bank's Yang Tzu-fei also lamented the young people's autobiography does not provide any information that is related to themselves. Some of them could introduce their whole family, including their hobbies, personality, and strong points, but never write about themselves.
Wu also cited a resume that said the job seeker is adept at using "Fresh" (should be Flash) and "World" (should be Word) programs.
However, these people who are born after 1980 demonstrate better creativity and energy when compared with their predecessors.
Wu and Yang urged these job seekers to put more time and energy into their resume in order to attain a better job.
In this handout, I will discuss different "topics" or, as they are called in Aristotle and classical rhetoric, "commonplaces." These are "places," like a shopping list, where ideas can come from. I also like to think of "places" in one's writing where these commonplaces can be used.
I will give a brief list of these commonplaces and explain each one. Then I will show how I used them to expand Aesop's fable of the ass.
In using these commonplaces, the main point to remember is they can be recursively used (in other words, they can "recur" (occur again, or be used many times with other commonplaces, as we'll see).
Keep in mind, that writing is itself a "recursive" process. This means that all the elements (style, choice of words, focus, even title) may be revised or changed as the writing occurs.
Keep in mind, too, that some topics (commonplaces) overlap and one may resemble another sometimes. That doesn't matter. One hammer may look like another and its use may overlap with another. The main thing is to know when to use them.
Also, "topics" are not written in stone. I added a topic, or place to find ideas, by using "humor." That's clearly a place where one can expand ideas by showing the humor of something.
1. Definition. This enlarges an idea by saying what it is or what is meant in detail. For example, "By murder I mean a willful act of violence for an unjust purpose, which excludes self-defense." Or, "By music on the Internet, I do not include midi files or .wav files." Definition need not be formally made: "Jazz, a syncopated music usually improvised, developed out of black communities." Here I used apposition (definition separated by commas) to define my word.
2. Division. This divides an idea in some way. "Taiwan" can be divided into different cities; each city can be divided into places; places into times of day; times of day into different things to do (eating, walking, etc.).
3. Genus and species. Like definition, this explains one thing by putting it in a larger class (called genus). "Killing people in war is not the same as killing your neighbor from envy." "Taiwan has all one can hope to find in a big city: good restaurants, fine entertainment, concert music, etc." Here Taiwan is placed in the "genus" of "big city."
4. Subject and adjuncts. A simpler name is "subject and traits" or "subject and characteristics." Here you divide a noun into its "signs" or traits. "Spring is here! How lovely the chirping of birds, the blooming roses, the buzzing bees, and the fanning of gentle breezes." Here "spring" is divided into its traits (what one expects from spring).
5. Whole and parts. Dividing a thing or idea into units. A house can be divided into many rooms, the music of Beethoven into symphonies, sonatas, concertos, etc.
6. Similarity. The writer shows how one thing is similar to another of the same kind. "She resembles Gong Li." "She has the brain of Einstein."
7. Difference. "Jack is like my uncle, only he's lazy where my uncle works hard. That's the difference." "I was willing to clean your room when you were children. But now you're grown and I expect you to clean your own room." "Mozart's music is from the classical period, while Beethoven's music crosses over into the Romantic period. Both are great composers. Still, Mozart's music has more balance, but is less intense and speaks less loudly than Beethoven's to modern ears."
8. Degree. A matter of more or less. Life is a matter of choice so one needs more or less reason to make a choice. "The right of an unborn child to life is of greater value than the rights of a woman" (to abort a child, control her body).
You can see where degree is a matter of rhetoric, not logic. Because you can reverse the sentence: "The rights of a woman are more important than the right of her unborn child to life."
Aristotle divided "degree" in different ways.
"More is better than less" ("You can have more ice cream at this store than at the other one").
"An end is greater than the means": "Since we read for knowledge, read this book; you may enjoy it less, but you'll learn more."
"What is rare is better than what is common." "This is the only Elvis Presley CD recorded before he switched from Sun Records to RCA Records! That's why it's worth the price."
"Learned opinion is better than the unlearned." "My teacher says that's a bad novel. Are you going to believe Janet's opinion over his?"
"More people is better than few." "Most people prefer The Beatles above The Rolling Stones. That's why I say The Beatles are better."
"What people really want is better than what they only pretend to want." "She may be beautiful, Sam, but do you really want to spend the rest of your life with a beautiful woman unable to hold a good conversation? Do you want her to be the mother of your children?"
"More so." This is called a fortiori, or "from the stronger." This means if something is true of one thing, it is more true of another. "If you hired Sally, who only went to high school, then Nancy, who has a college degree, should be better!" "If I don't trust my own mother, whom I've known all my life, how can you expect me to trust you, whom I don't even know?"
9. Analogy. Analogy is different from similarity because it compares from different classes. "Winning a war without a budget is like going to college without a budget." Comparing one war to another war is using the commonplace of similarity or difference.
10. Cause-Effect. Here the writer argues from cause to effect or from effect to cause. One can argue the "effects" of drinking too much. Or the causes of an unhappy marriage. This is a useful topic.
11. Antecedent-Consequence. Like cause-effect. But this is based on before and after, commonly in terms of the future rather than the past. The form is commonly "if-then": "If we allow these places to stay open, (then) young people will spend most of their days in them, neglecting their school work and getting into all kinds of trouble." The relationship is not proved, only suggested.
12. Contradiction. Denying something is true by showing what has not been done or is not the case: "We say we want better education, yet we spend money on other things instead." "He claims he killed in self-defense; but his victim had no knife on him and no gun. What was he defending against?"
13. Contrary. Denying something is true by claiming it's opposite is true. "He claims it was self-defense, but he was running towards him, not running away."
14. Possible-Impossible. To say something is possible or not. "Peace is a nice word. Yet people are not nice. If peace were possible, we would have had it thousands of years ago." "Health is a good, but it is out of reach. We know now that people will be sick and then die no matter what science does. Isn't it about time we gave up the dream of endless youth?"
15. Past Fact-Future Fact. "At the end of World War II, many countries signed peace treaties. If we did it once, we can do it again."
16. Precedent. To argue about the present from a past fact. "He was convicted of assault in 1998. Why do you doubt he assaulted his wife today?"
17. Authority. "Dr. Smith, of Harvard University, claims, if given enough funding, he and his associates can find a cure for AIDS in fewer than ten years."
18. Witness. "John saw Ted do it."
19. Proverb. "The Bible says, 'An eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth.'"
20. Rumors. "I can only go by what I hear. Based on the voices I've heard in this community, I believe there's a lot of anger over the present administration."
21. Oaths. "His mother swore her son was at home on the night of the killing. His mother is a Christian woman. She loves her son, but she loves God more." (Note how "degree" was used too.)
22. Documents. "Here's my driver's license. See for yourself that I'm old enough to go in." "Here are my grade transcripts to prove I graduated from the university." "Professor Jones said that Elvis was not a great artist. Yet he has sold billions of records around the world, according to Billboard magazine." (Note how "degree" is used too: more people choose Elvis over one professor.)
23. Law. "Regardless what I think, it's against the law and I cannot allow it." "Even if I want to let you in my pub, it's against the law and I'll lose my license." (Here "law" and "cause-effect" are used together.)
24. The Supernatural. "As God is my witness, I did not murder that man!" "God will punish us for our neglect of our children."
25. Words. Here one argues based on a word's root meanings: "A man should be manly." "You call yourself a Christian yet you don't follow Christ!" "You say you sing Rock 'n' Roll, but your music doesn't rock and it doesn't roll!"
26. Quotation. One can quote the words of another. Lincoln said, "A house divided against itself cannot stand."
27. Example. "Drinking can be dangerous. The other day two students were killed when they rode their motorcycles after a drinking party."
28. Dialogue. Using words spoken as if the people were present. "If Jesus were here, what would he say? Would he say, 'I am very pleased with your fighting and your hatred'? Or would he say, 'You have betrayed my fellowship and dishonored me'?"
29. Humor. Repeating an idea in terms of humor. Winston Churchill said, "Hitler said he would wring England's neck like a chicken: some chicken. Some neck!"
30. Special topics. Aristotle divided "places" into "common places" (those used commonly in all cases of rhetoric) and "special topics": those used in one of three special kinds of rhetoric: judicial, ceremonial, deliberative. He explained these in terms of past, present, future. In judicial (or law) rhetoric, we explain what happened (past). In ceremonial rhetoric, we praise or blame a person today (present). In deliberative rhetoric, we plan (deliberate) future action. Topics for judicial rhetoric are just and unjust; for ceremonial rhetoric, good and evil; in deliberative rhetoric, advantage and disadvantage, or the worthy and unworthy.
Using these topics, I expanded Aesop's fable of the ass:
It was a such a sweet and fine day. The birds were out choiring their
morning tunes, the tulips blazed in bright purple under the rising sun,
the breeze blew gently across my cheeks, and a bee hummed its honied
secrets into my ear.
Here I used subject (good weather) and predicates, a kind of division to expand my material.
I had almost forgotten all my troubles, the unpaid bills, the broken
motorcycle, and even my worn out shoes. In fact, I almost began to feel a
little guilt over what I perceived as my undeserved happiness.
Here I used cause-effect, explaining the effects of the weather and the causes why I almost stopped feeling guilty.
You see, I was never the kind of person who took happiness for granted. You may call me a pessimist if you wish. But I call myself a realist.
Subject and predicates: the traits of a kind of person suspicious of happiness. Difference is used too (the difference between pessimist and realist).
I'm realistic about life's promises. I know, for example, that for every sunny day, rainfall will follow. For every lucky win at cards, there will be an unexpected bill arriving in the mail. For a fine dessert, there'll be indigestion and antacids to follow.
Here I used subject and predicates again, explaining what a realistic person believes. I also used antecedent-consequence (before/after).
So I'm always prepared for the worst. When it comes, my stomach muscles are fully flexed, able to absorb, with little pain, the fury of the punch.
Antecedent-consequence is used here (before and after).
Lady Fortune, they say, is fickle. So I had gotten used to suspecting every turn of her madly spinning wheel.
Words are used here ("Lady Fortune") for meaning. Also cause-effect, based on my knowledge of Fortune.
"Do you deserve such a day as this?" I asked myself.
Dialogue is used here, as if I were speaking.
After all, I did pass a red light the other day. And, as usual, I did not return my brother, Harry's recorded message on my answering machine. As usual, he asked me to call him back. As usual, I decided not to.
Cause-effect is used again. By repeating the phrase, "As usual" three times, I used anaphora (repeating the opening of a sentence or clause).
You see, my brother is a funny guy. He got married at nineteen and seven kids followed in quick succession. His wife looks like Jennifer Lopez, so I can understand that part. What I don't understand is why he thinks I'm the one who should support his seven kids!
I divide "brother" into subject (kind of person) and traits. I also use cause-effect and similarity (comparison) with Jennifer Lopez. Besides, I add the common place of humor (Lopez).
The way it looks, my brother thinks that because he has seven kids and I have none, that I'm made of money. I suppose he thinks I've got millions stashed away somewhere. Maybe he thinks I'm just dying to give the money he thinks I have to a needy family with seven children.
Antecedent-Consequence is used to show how falsely the brother thinks.
What my brother doesn't understand is that supporting a gambling habit is more costly than supporting seven children. Children soon fall asleep, but the urge to win at the roulette wheel never sleeps.
Cause-effect related to a gambling habit.
So, you see, I've got money problems of my own. But that doesn't lessen my sense of guilt every time my brother leaves a recorded message and I don't phone back.
Cause-effect again: money problems and guilt.
After all, you can't reason with guilt. For example, I gave many of my coworkers colds when I refused to nurse mine at home. There was good reason for that, as my coworkers know. After all, I'm in charge of the company. If I stayed home, the business would fall apart. At least that's the way I see it.
Cause-effect and antecedent-consequence (since the second is based on what may happen).
Besides, if I stayed home every time I sneezed in the morning, I'd have a hard time convincing my superviser I should be promoted to district manager. But that didn't help the way I felt after I passed my cold along to my coworkers.
Cause-effect again. Also division is being used, dividing up reasons.
"Good morning," I said, the morning after, to complete and glum silence, while my coworkers were busy blowing their noses or hacking their coughs.
Dialogue and effect.
By then, I had gotten over my own cold, which made the situation even worse. So just when I was certain that the receptionist, Susie was about to begin her accusatory monologue, berating me for not covering my mouth when sneezing the day before, I announced that I had to make an important phone call and hastened to the safety of my office.
More cause-effect.
But that was not the only reason I had felt a little guilt that morning. I was not exactly generous when dining out with colleagues. I was a little behind schedule picking up the lunch bill--like a few months behind. I kept finding excuses, like I had no change or I left my wallet at home or my credit card had been discontinued. That works for a few weeks, but then the trick begins to wear off. Your friends begin to sound like a birdcage full of birds: "Cheap, cheap, cheap!"
Cause-effect (guilt), antecedent-consequence (what will happen in the future), and words (pun on the word "cheap"="cheep"). This also includes the topic of "humor."
Now Charlie Nichols, for instance, had paid a lot of money on the last teppanyaki meal we had together and I still hadn't returned the favor. That was about six months ago. Of all people, I was least prepared to meet him, as my schedule indicated, later that morning.
Words is used here, just by naming a person, since it gives that person a kind of reality. (If the name is real, the person must be too.)
So maybe that's why my euphoria was not fated to last, as events subsequently proved.
Antecedent-consequence.
It happened like this. I was driving my donkey, Duke, along a very
high mountain pass.
Cause-effect.
Now I'm not especially fond of animals, and I never thought I'd see the day when I would drive a donkey along a mountain pass. I certainly didn't buy the donkey myself. It was given to me by my uncle, Dominico.
Antecedent-consequence; person/traits (the kind of person the writer is).
Uncle Dominico was the big eccentric in our family. He is what we call the "black sheep."
Ever since childhood I was aware of how little Uncle Dominico fit in with the rest of our family. If they smoked cigarettes, he smoked cigars. If they were Democrats, he was Republican. If they were Catholics, he was Protestant. Even among his Protestant friends he became a black sheep, as he happily announced that he was a "born again" atheist before leaving the church.
Difference (uncle is different from others). Subject and adjuncts (person and traits); cause-effect. Division too: several reasons the uncle is a "black sheep." "Black sheep" is an example of "words." The topic of Example follows:
Even Uncle Dominico's gifts were strange. He once gave my mother a statue of the Buddha, even though he knew we were devout Catholics.
True, there's maybe nothing that strange about giving a statue of the Buddha as a gift. But Uncle Dominico attached some Catholic prayers to the statue as well.
"How can I say Catholic prayers to the Buddha, Dom?" my mother asked her brother, confused. "I've got a statue of the Blessed Virgin already. I really don't need this, Dom."
Subject and adjuncts (person/traits). Words (names) too: The mother uses "Dom," the nephew uses "Uncle Dominico."
But Uncle Dominico did not get my mother's point.
"That's why I gave you a statue of the Buddha," he replied, cheerfully. "You already have a statue of the Virgin," he said, with seeming logic. "Why should I buy you another one? It's like buying Harry a baseball card of Barry Bonds if he already has one." "Harry" was my uncle's way of saying my real name, "Peter."
I could see my mother thinking hard, trying to understand her brother's logic. I'm not sure if she understood or not. But not to hurt her brother's feelings, my mother accepted the gift and put it in her drawer, where it has been ever since, except for the annual reunions when my mother puts it on display on top of the television set so my uncle can see it when he comes.
Cause-effect again: the reason why the uncle's gift is accepted.
Not that he remembers buying it for my mom.
"What's that statue of Buddha doing on top of your television set," he asked one year. "Have you converted to Buddhism?"
"You gave it to me, Dom," my mother replied. "Don't you remember?"
"But why would I give you a statue of Buddha? You're Catholic."
Dialogue again.
Uncle Dominico was like that. Strange. Very strange.
That's why we always waited, nervously, for him to arrive on our birthdays, never knowing what gift he would bring.
Cause-effect.
One fine birthday morning, rubbing the sleep from my eyes, I was startled to hear a strange noise outside my bedroom window. It sounded like the braying of an animal. Almost like a donkey.
I thought I had not fully awakened from my dream. Because I knew it couldn't be the braying of a donkey. Donkeys don't just wander into one's backyard like that. And nobody would bring us a donkey, since they knew we had no use for one.
Antecedent-consequence.
But then I heard Uncle Dominico's cheerful laughter outside my window, followed by his face looking inside it and his loud cry of "Happy birthday, nephew! Look at the wonderful new horse I bought for you!"
Dialogue; names (words).
Didn't my uncle know there was a difference between a donkey and a horse? Did he care?
Similarity; difference. Cause-effect ("did he care?").
My mother ran into my bedroom while Uncle Dominico was busy patting the donkey on the head. She rapidly whispered words of etiquette to me while leaning over my bed.
"Try to be nice about your Uncle Domenico's gift, honey. Pretend you like it. You may not think highly of his gift, but he thinks highly of it. That's the important point. Don't hurt his feelings. After all, he is my brother and he's your uncle too. Besides, it's a sin to curse God."
Dialogue; cause-effect. (The mother will not curse God for giving her her brother.) This includes humor ("it's a sin to curse God").
So that's how I got my donkey. Having it, I had to take care of it. Uncle Dominico reminded me that he would visit now and then to check in on the "horse," as he insisted on calling my gift.
Cause-effect.
My mother reminded me that sometimes sacrifices had to be made for the sake of family relationships.
Antecedent-consequence: family relationships might be ruined.
"After all," she added, "the donkey is bound to die some day. Like your uncle. Like all of us," she hastily added. "In the meantime, you've got to keep it alive. Feed it and walk it every morning. That's a little sacrifice to make, dear."
Cause-effect. More humor ("uncle is bound to die").
So that's what I had to do every morning thereafter. Not that I considered it time wasted. I used the silence of the morning to memorize my class assignments when a schoolboy. Later, when I got my job, I used the time to plan the day's schedule or to enjoy daydreams of my girlfriend, Nancy, to whom I was planning to pop the question next March.
Division: how the writer spent his mornings.
It being a nice day and all that, I was thinking very pleasant and peaceful thoughts about the lovely romantic dinner I was planning that evening with her. It was to be at a French restaurant we both loved called L'amour. It was cozy and quiet and the music from Somewhere in Time was always playing on the sound system, so it was a great place for a young couple madly in love. It was not too expensive either. So the day seemed like the perfect model of what a day should be.
Cause-effect: nice day, nice restaurant, nice thoughts. Also names: the music and the restaurant.
Suddenly that crazy donkey started running towards the cliff, as if he
had just swallowed a pint of espresso. Or maybe he had scribbled a
suicide note in the dust before I led him out of the stable!
Humor ("espresso"). Antecedent/consequence: why the donkey acted like that.
"Stop! Stop!" I cried, as I raced him to the edge.
"Stop!" I continued. "You crazy horse!" I shouted, in my anger using my uncle's name for the donkey. "Do you want to kill the both of us?"
Dialogue; antecedent/consequence: getting killed.
I pulled his tail, I yanked his coat, I grabbed his saddle, I hugged his
hind legs, and even twisted his ears. It was useless. After minutes of this
tug-of-war, during which I scraped every bone in my body and almost
tumbled down the mountainside myself, I had had enough.
Cause-effect: trying to control the donkey.
Laying on the ground, my shirt torn and my pants muddied, I thought of Uncle Dominico and counted to ten. That was not enough, however, and I muttered a curse under my breath. Maybe two. I forget.
More cause-effect and humor ("counted to ten").
By then, it didn't matter. I wasn't going to worry about Duke or Uncle Dominico. After all, if an ass wishes to make an ass of himself, there's no stopping him. And if an uncle wishes to make an ass of himself, why should I make one of myself too?
More cause-effect.
Say, Tell Synonyms
The following are 50 ways to use a general verb (say, tell) in specific ways at lower levels of generality, so it becomes vivid (alive) and colorful. For example, in Number 1 we can hear the teacher speaking carefully and in Number 2 we can hear the senseless speech of the little boy; while in Number 3 we hear Cindy speaking thoughtlessly.
Note that attribution widens the possibilities of usage. Atrribution means naming the person who speaks. Because this follows a quotation, speaking is implied and does not need to be said again, as in the example of "chuckle." Since we know that a person has spoken, we don't have to say, "he said, chuckling." "He chuckled" is good enough, since we assume he chuckled as he spoke. However, if it is not part of attribution, the verb "chuckling" can only mean a kind of laughing, and not talking, as in: "The man chuckled as he watched the movie."
Many verbs can be used in this way, such as "joked": "You've just won a million dollars," he joked.
Or: "Someone stole my credit cards but I'm not reporting it to the police: The thief spends less than my wife," the husband quipped.
Here the speaker's goal is to show how the teacher spoke carefully.
2. The young boy babbled on about his mother.
Here the speaker's goal is to show how the boy speaks senselessly about his mother.
3. Cindy blabbed her best friend's secret.
Here the speaker's goal is to show how Cindy thoughtlessly told a secret.
4. "I love you, I love you," the young girl chanted to her boyfriend.
Here the speaker's goal is to show how the girl's voice sounded like a melody.
5. The two neighbors chatted until suppertime.
Here the speaker's goal is to show how the neighbors lightly talked.
6. The constant chattering of his roommates disturbed Bob's studies.
Here the speaker's goal is to show how the roommates talked without purpose.
7. Nancy confessed she loved John.
Here the speaker's goal is to show how Nancy said something she had kept hidden.
8. The two ladies conversed over tea.
Here the speaker's goal is to show how two ladies talk thoughtfully.
9. Mrs. Chen divulged her secret to her husband.
Here the speaker's goal is to show how Mrs. Chen's talking revealed a secret.
10. The old man drawled on about his army days.
Here the speaker's goal is to show how the man spoke vowel sounds very slowly.
11. The mother droned on about her daughter's misbehavior that week.
Here the speaker's goal is to show how the mother spoke with dull monotony.
12. Tom expressed his feelings to his father.
Here the speaker's goal is to show how Tom carefully found words to speak.
13. "Study hard," the teacher intoned to her students.
Here the speaker's goal is to show how the teacher spoke sounds carefully and with power.
14. "You're in the wrong line," John informed Bill.
Here the speaker's goal is to show how the John said something Bill didn't know.
15. Michele gabbed all the time in class.
Here the speaker's goal is to show how Michele said unimportant things in class.
16. The little girl squeaked her displeasure to her angry mother.
Here the speaker's goal is to show how the little girl spoke in a very weak voice.
17. The boy squealed about his sister's absence from class.
Here the speaker's goal is to show how the boy informed about his sister.
18. He uttered a threat and then left, shaking his fist.
Here the speaker's goal is to show that a key word or phrase ("threat") was spoken.
19. The young man found the courage to verbalize his feelings for his girlfriend.
Here the speaker's goal is to show how the young man found words to say something.
20. Mrs. Tsai ventriloquized her husband's demand for a raise to his boss.
Here the speaker's goal is to show how Mrs. Tsai spoke for her husband. (A ventrioloquist is a person who speaks as if from a puppet.)
21. Mrs. Chen voiced an objection to the decision.
Here the speaker's goal is to show how Mrs. Chen made herself heard as part of a vote.
22. The boys stood on the street corner, yakking about passersby.
Here the speaker's goal is to show aimless talk.
23. The teacher phoned to notify Mrs. Smith that her son was absent.
Here the speaker's goal is to show how the teacher said something another didn't know.
24. Nancy sang a different tune when her boyfriend left her.
Here the speaker's goal is to show how Nancy changed her routine manner of speaking.
25. Mr. Adams broached the topic of women to his son.
Here the speaker's goal is to show how Mr. Adams shyly started a conversation.
26. The man described the thief to the police.
Here the speaker's goal is to show how the man used speech as a report.
27. The minister discoursed on the wages of sin.
Here the speaker's goal is to show how the minister spoke like a professor.
28. Mr. Chen sermonized his son about free love.
Here the speaker's goal is to show how Mr. Chen spoke like he was preaching.
29. Julie rhapsodized about how romantic her boyfriend was.
Here the speaker's goal is to show how Julie spoke with passion.
30. Mrs. Lang lectured her daughter on dressing well.
Here the speaker's goal is to show how Mrs. Lang spoke like a teacher.
31. Sally predicted that Bob would be kicked out of the club.
Here the speaker's goal is to show how Sally spoke like a prophet.
32. Sue persuaded her father to raise her allowance.
Here the speaker's goal is to show how Sue spoke to change her father's mind.
33. Jack induced his mother to pay for a better college.
Here the speaker's goal is to show how Jack spoke to change his mother's mind.
34. John orated about how he was a good student.
Here the speaker's goal is to show how John spoke as if giving a speech.
35. Amanda pitched the joys of married life to all her friends.
Here the speaker's goal is to show how Amanda spoke as if selling something.
36. Cynthia liked to gossip about her friends.
Here the speaker's goal is to show how Cynthia spoke to pass around rumors.
37. Mike reported the facts to his neighbor.
Here the speaker's goal is to show how Mike spoke to tell facts.
38. June prated about how important it was to buy new clothes.
Here the speaker's goal is to show how June spoke aimlessly.
39. The couple prattered about how happy they were together.
Here the speaker's goal is to show how the couple spoke aimlessly.
40. "Don't drink too much," his wife harangued.
Here the speaker's goal is to show how the wife spoke repeatedly and angrily about something.
41. "Let me go!" the woman shrieked.
Here the speaker's goal is to show how the woman speaks in a terrified manner.
42. "I l-l-love you," the young man stuttered to his girlfriend.
Here the speaker's goal is to show how the young man spoke without confidence.
42. "You're right. I did drink a lot tonight," the husband stammered in apology.
Here the speaker's goal is to show how the husband said something shamefully.
43. "Your honor," the lawyer objected. "She's leading the witness."
Here the speaker's goal is to show how the lawyer spoke in objection
44. "You don't really love me," Angel protested to her boyfriend.
Here the speaker's goal is to show how Angel speaks to deny something.
45. "I knew I would catch you eating the candy tonight," her father chuckled.
Here the speaker's goal is to show how the father laughed as he spoke.
46. "Don't come home late again," the father roared to his daughter.
Here the speaker's goal is to show how the father spoke with power.
47. "Can I have your autograph?" the young fan giggled to Faye Wong.
Here the speaker's goal is to show how the fan was nervous as she spoke.
48. "That's the second time you came in late this week," the mother remonstrated to her son.
Here the speaker's goal is to show how the mother scolded her son.
49. "Don't put your finger in your nose," the mother scolded.
Here the speaker's goal is to show how the mother criticized her daughter.
50. "I don't give money to strangers," the man snarled to the panhandler.
Here the speaker's goal is to show how the man spoke angrily.
Finally, the song, "I'm an Ordinary Man," from the Broadway musical My Fair Lady (1956):
But, let a woman in your life, and your sabbatical* is through, *free time, leisure
In a line that never ends, comes an army of her friends,
Just to jabber and to chatter and to tell her what the matter is with YOU!
Here the speaker's goal is to show how annoying women talk aimlessly, disturbing the peace.
These pages explain comma splices and a fused sentence. Complete the assignment, and others already sent, by next class meeting. In addition, I've made up a (not too good) triangle called a Communication Triangle, which we discussed in class. (My paint program has only limited choices.) In this case, the Greek words may actually help as a mnemonic (remembering device), because they all end the same way: pathos, ethos, logos; more simply, feeling, character, reason. They focus, in turn, on the audience, speaker/writer, and the arguments as well as speaking/writing style used (the style is a tool of the arguments and never an end in itself). 1. Pathos includes appealing to the shared feelings of the body (members) being addressed, whether many or one: "Think back when you were eighteen and madly in love. Can you blame her for falling so foolishly in love with him? Forgive your daughter as you would have wished to be forgiven at her age." 2. Logos: "True it was killing, but was it murder? Can we call killing in defense of life, murder? Murder is the taking of life; self-defense is the saving of life, even one's own. There's a difference. True, if he had an alternative, I might agree with you that this was murder. But what was he to do? The man was built like Arnold Schwarzenegger, while my client, as you can see for yourself, is barely over five feet and weighs 90 pounds with his sweater on. Was this man capable of battling his attacker? If this be murder, then, members of the jury, none of us are safe on the streets, deprived as we are of any kind of self-defense. For who, if this man is convicted of murder, would defend himself or his children? What mother would think of using a weapon to attack an intruder in her house in defense of her children? Why should she, when she would be certain to be killed, if not by her attacker then, by the state, later. Why not die quickly then, rather than fight, kill her attacker, only to die a slower death later? I plead, I beg, I ask that you find this man, my client, your fellow citizen, not guilty of murder as charged. You will not only be giving this man a second chance at life, but yourselves as well. [Here I argued cause-effect (the cause of the killing), definition ("What is murder?"), antecedent/consequent (before/after: what will happen if we find this man guilty of murder?), precedent (based on this case, future cases will be judged), example (I gave examples of what might happen), etc.] 3. Ethos. "I know you will think I am defending this man. I am not. I know he did wrong. Just like you. He should not have killed that man. He should not have gotten drunk and driven his automobile. The life of a young man was lost because of what I admit was irresponsible behavior on my client's part. No one denies that. What I deny is that society will benefit from locking this man up in prison. He is basically a good man. A man was killed because of his mistake. I do not dispute this. But I do argue that's exactly what it was: a mistake! Who will benefit by having this youth locked up in prison with hardened criminals? Will it bring back the life of that poor young man? If it could, I might not plead as strongly on my client's behalf. But it will not. Sadly, nothing will bring back that young man's life. But neither will putting my client in prison do so. What, shall we mourn a life by pleading revenge for a life? Shall we undo a death by taking another man's life? Gentlemen and ladies of the jury, you know me as a Christian man, a God-fearing man, a moral man. I am not one to condone misconduct if I saw no reasonable doubt as to the wrongdoer's character. But in this case I do have reasonable doubt. I can only hope that you share my doubt, as you share my hopes and my faith in the work of forgiveness as a corrective far greater than iron walls and a steel door. [Here I tried to inspire the jury's confidence in me as a person, by meeting them halfway, and admitting that what my client did was wrong. I built a bridge between me and my jury; once the bridge was built, my jury could walk across it to my side, rather than stay on theirs. If I had begun, "If you judge this man guilty of murder, you're a bunch of stupid idiots," I would have lost my jury and my case, and my client would have lost too. You can see, by the way, where the communication triangle may overlap, of course. A person's skill at reasoning is part of his character; a good character shows sympathy for hearers; and arousing feeling or sympathy in listeners requires the use of reason and good character too. Still, the triangle is a useful model to consider. (2) First, a note about paragraphing itself. As I mentioned in class, a "paragraph"( =¶ ) was originally a little mark ("graph") placed alongside or above ("para") part of a text to show a change in thought, in order to guide a reader reading. Today we don't mark the text, but indent it, while keeping the word.
(3) One way to look at a paragraph is as a resting place. If the essay or story is a stairway of many stairs, then a paragraph is like a floor in between where the reader can catch his breath.
(4) This analogy (or comparison) made more sense in a time of larger paragraphs, sometimes pages in length. Today, since readers are more accustomed to bright page layouts and webpages, paragraphs are getting shorter. In fact, most newspapers sometimes paragraph on every sentence!
(5) I don't advise this for scholarly work. But it does show that paragraphing is not only based on the logic of a text, but also on the needs of readers.
(6) Remember the communication triangle, where writer, text, and reader are part of the final communication act. Based on this model, we paragraph based on a reader's needs as well as the text argument.
(7) This is not to ignore the logic of our argument. Clearly there are places in the text where paragraphing would not make sense, unless every sentence were paragraphed to hide the fact.
(8) Take the last two sentences above. If I paragraphed (indented) after my first sentence above, it would not make sense, since the second sentence is closely related to the first. To indent on the second sentence would make it difficult for the reader to see the connection. After all, rhetoric is an aid for the reader.
(9) On the other hand, in ¶7, by indenting on the words, "This is not to ignore," I make the "antithetical" (opposed) purpose of that sentence (opposed to the thought in the ¶6) more clear.
(10) So clarity, not logic is the main goal in paragraphing. If we take the communication triangle as a model again, the focus is on the reader's part of the triangle, rather than the text part.
(11) However, remember, in the communication triangle, all parts are related. After all, it's a single triangle with three points. They are not three points by themselves, but joined in a triangle.
(12) So the clarity of our argument, by easy paragraphing, advances our argument as well. In turn, reader and text work together to advance the writer's goals.
(13) Now the reader can observe, above, that almost all my paragraphs are two sentences in length. I hesitate a little to advise students to do the same thing, since this may not be the best model to use for college writing or scholarly publications. However it's a good model to study even if one does not wish to follow it.
(14) My method of paragraphing is to begin with a topic sentence, advance that topic sentence in some way (cause-effect, example, definition, etc.), then begin a new topic sentence and new paragraph, advancing the last one. Since the ideas in several short ¶'s are often closely related, I could "collapse" several ¶'s into one without loss of focus. In some cases, however, where there is a stronger break in continuous argument, a new ¶ is required.
(15) At the same time, there are rhetorical ¶'s of one sentence, as in the first sentence of my text above (¶1). Another example of a rhetorical paragraph is what is called a rhetorical question, such as, "Is this the way our government should spend its tax dollars?" Such a sentence would neatly link a ¶ before (discussing how tax dollars are spent) with the ¶ to follow (explaining why that is not a good way to spend tax dollars).
(16) Besides rhetorical questions, there are transition one-line ¶'s, such as, "Now that I have shown how our tax dollars are currently being spent, I shall show better uses of our well-earned money." This single sentence would be a complete ¶, leading, logically, to a more complete paragraph.
Now I have numbered each ¶ above and will explain my logic indenting them.
(Note by the way that the above sentence is another single-sentence ¶ and serves as a transition to what follows.)
¶1 is a single sentence, introducing the main essay and leading smoothly into ¶2.
¶2 is logically indented on the transition marker, first. (Transition markers are words like however, moreover, therefore, thus, first, second, then, now, nevertheless, next, and others. These are also called "adverbial conjunctions" [first is another form of "firstly"].)
¶3 "One way" shows a new train of thought, requiring a paragraph indent.
¶4 "This" is a demonstrative pronoun, "pointing" to an idea before. Since it points to an idea before, whether to paragraph or not is my choice. Either way it works. Since "this" refers to the previous sentence, keeping the two sentences together is logical. On the other hand, just because it refers to a previous sentence, indenting for a new ¶ insures coherence even in a new ¶. These are cases where one can choose to remain in the same ¶ (as earlier writers would) or start a new ¶, as I choose to do in our media culture, for easy reading. The point is, sometimes paragraphing is "optional," a choice of style rather than logic. You should be able to know the difference.
¶5 Again, "this" ("I don't advise this") links ¶5 and ¶4, so indenting is optional, a matter of style, not logic. I choose short ¶'s instead of long.
¶6 Here's a new topic idea and I need a new ¶. Coherence is maintained, because the idea of the "communication triangle" is linked with "the needs of the audience" in ¶5, part of the communication triangle in ¶6.
¶7 Another optional indent. "This" links with ¶6, so I could keep ¶6 and ¶7 together or indent (as I did). It's a matter of style, not logic.
¶8 "Take" is an example word. Here's a strong reason to indent. Coherence is made by referring to a thought in the previous ¶.
¶9 In this ¶, "On the other hand" is a common way to oppose one idea to another. Now opposing can be seen as related or different, so the ¶ is optional here. Again, I choose to ¶ when I can, to help the reader find more resting places and see changes in thought more clearly.
¶10 Note how I used an adverb conjunction ("So") and another form of the word "clear" ("clarity) to link both ¶'s at the same time as I separated them. "So" opposes them, while "clarity/clear" links the two ¶'s coherently.
¶11 Another easy ¶. "However" is a common adverb conjunction (also called antithesis, or opposition); while by repeating the idea of the communication triangle, I create coherence.
(Coherence is insured by using demonstrative pronouns [this, that, these, those], repetition [same words], replacement [different forms of words, like "clear" and "clarity], pronoun replacement ["he" for "Einstein"] and so on. We'll discuss this later.)
¶12 Another easy conjunction ("So") that indents and joins (to ¶11) at the same time. Words refer to ideas in ¶11, insuring coherence of argument and flow.
¶13 "Now" clearly starts a new thought, referring to previous ¶.
¶14 "My method" refers to "same thing" in ¶13. So "my method" starts a new ¶, while linked to ¶13.
¶15 The phrase, "At the same time," is used adversatively (opposed to, while linking, the thought in ¶14), so it's a clear marker for change of ¶.
(Here "however" is implied: "At the same time, however," etc. Another use of "at the same time," as a prepositional modifier, would link rather than oppose. Be careful of the difference, as in the following: "Jack stirred his coffee. At the same time, he kissed his wife on the cheek. Ah, what bliss it was to be married!" Here it would make no sense to indent on the words, "At the same time.")
¶16 Finally, ¶16 uses the adverb conjunction ("Besides") as a reason to indent, yet insures coherence by repetition of an idea in the same words used in ¶15: "rhetorical questions."
I established coherence in this ¶ by repetition ("words"), snynonymic replacement ("certain words," "curse words") and pronoun replacement ("these words"). Noun replacement by synonym includes "speeches," "presentations," "speech contest," and "class," all meaning the same thing: a place where speeches are given.
No doubt, hip hop music has confused many students about the use of these words. Hearing them often on radio may suggest they are more commonly used in American or British speech.
I used cause-effect to mark a new ¶ (hip hop as cause). For coherence within the ¶, I used pronoun replacement. Since pronouns stand "in place of" or "for" the noun, it refers the reader back to the noun, insuring coherence.
This is not true. Even today, these words are never used in print or in media.
Here I use the commonplace of contradiction, or denial to mark a new ¶: "This is not true." "This" as a demonstrative pronoun, replacing the idea ending the last ¶, "points" to that idea, thus insuring coherence in my new ¶. The 2d sentence supports my short first sentence. At the same time, by using another demonstrative pronoun ("these") to replace "words" in the last ¶, I maintain coherence. Finally, I repeat the word too ("words"). We can go on, of course. The final prepositional phrase ("in print or in media" modifies the statement before it, restricting it further so the reader has no unanswered questions ("which media?").
Often, when quoting these words, the phrase, "expletive deleted" or just "expletive" by itself is placed in brackets as [expletive deleted] or [expletive]. "Expletive" is a formal word for "curse word" (sometimes known as "four-letter words," since several, but not all, are four letters in length).
Here is an example of an optional ¶. I could have continued "Often" as part of the last ¶ but chose to indent. There was enough of a change of thought to allow an indent ("often," as a conjunction, allows it). In terms of coherence, I used repetition ("words"), a demonstrative pronoun replacement ("these"), a reflexive pronoun replacement ("itself"), synonym replacement ("expletive"), even an adjective replacement ("several," which refers to the missing noun). "All" is a determiner which refers to the missing noun ("words") too. This is how coherence is maintained and the reader can follow the argument.
This style was used recently in an Internet news item about one of the stars of Titanic (see insert). So you see, these words are still forbidden in media and print.
I used the commonplace of "example" (the Internet news item) to mark a new ¶. The demonstrative pronoun ("this") and synonym replacement ("style" for "words" in the previous ¶) maintains coherence. "So" is an adverb that refers the reader to the previous sentence in the ¶, while "these" uses pronoun replacement and "words" repeats "words" in the previous ¶ while "these words" replaces the class noun, "style" in the same ¶. Finally, "still" establishes adverb coherence, since it refers back, by synonym replacement, to the "forbidden" curse words.
Yet I have heard Taiwan students use them casually in formal speech presentations or while sitting in class. This is wrong.
Here is another example of a style ¶, since I could have continued this new ¶ as part of the last ¶ but chose not to, allowing the reader more resting places and helping the reader to follow a step-by-step argument. "Yet" can be used to establish coherence between ¶'s, or to start a new ¶, as I did here. "Them," of course, points to the noun it replaces ("words"). The final words, "in formal speech," etc. make specific my claim. The final sentence makes my judgment ("wrong") stronger by being a short sentence. "This" of course replaces the subject of the last sentence, insuring coherence.
Probably ESL instructors, whether native or foreign, should be held responsible too. One of the things an ESL instructor should teach is which words to avoid, as well as which words to use.
Here I use the commonplace of cause-effect to indent a new ¶ (ESL teachers "cause" this problem). Once again, this is a style ¶. It's logical, but not necessary, to indent. It's not necessary, because the cause-effect argument refers back to the subject of the last ¶ and explains it. But a new ¶ is acceptable because the topic is specifically focused on language teachers rather than the language itself.
Students are advised to avoid those words at all times. The only safe place to use them is among your friends and in private.
Even using them among your friends in public is not advised Often people around you do not like to listen to them or to have their children exposed to them.
During a heated conversation among friends at a public restaurant, voices rise and (even if unintended) words meant for your friends are heard by your neighbors as well, including their children. This annoyance can quickly result in an argument, however unintended.
If these words are to be avoided among friends, how much more so among a wider audience. This is especially so at a formal presentation such as a speech contest.
These 4 ¶'s could have been one, if I chose. But I chose to break them up. Their ideas are closely related, but I chose to find a slight change as an excuse to indent. A change occurs in the first words of the first ¶ in the group: "Students are advised," etc. I'll not go into detail to explain the redfaced italics, since they're obvious. "Neighbors" is a little different. It is not a synonym replacement for "friends," but part of a bigger class to which "friends" belongs ("people"), which creates coherence, since it is another form of repetition. "Annoyance," however, plainly replaces "curse words." As for commonplaces, I use definition (friends/neighbors) as well as cause-effect (curse words cause annoyance) and antecedent-consequent (before/after: this may happen). Degree (more and less) is also used in the last sentence in the ¶ when I argue, to the effect, that "if it is true in case X, then it is even more true in case Y." If it is true in the weaker case, it is more true in the stronger case. Note that I decided to use the conjunction "if" as a start of a new ¶ . Yet I would have kept it as part of the last ¶ if I did not have support in the following sentence, allowing me to indent. Otherwise the sentence would not be strong or rhetorical enough to stand by itself, as I previously explained. A rhetorical question, on the other hand, would be strong enough to stand by itself.
An "audience" is made up of a wide mix of peoples, of different cultures, religions, backgrounds, and ages. One has to consider this fact always and be careful not to offend anyone.
This ¶ too could have been part of a group of five sentences, as a single ¶ . But I chose to indent as a new ¶ for reasons already explained in other cases. Note how I maintain coherence by the usual means of noun replacement (synonyms such as "audience," "peoples," "anyone," and the classes to which they belong: religion, background, etc.). "Fact" replaces the entire sentence before, while referring back to it, insuring coherence.
Careful speech involves not only so-called "four-letter" or "curse" words, but also offensive terms of gender or race addressed commonly to women or ethnic minorities. These words should be avoided at all costs. They are what are called (in courts) "fighting words," since they cause fights.
Once again, the means of coherence should be clear. "Careful speech" refers, by opposing it, the bad speech in the last ¶ but one. Synonym replacement includes "terms," "four-letter," "curse words," "offensive," and "fighting words." Pronoun replacement is obvious, while "fighting" and "fights" repeat the same word in different (verb and noun) forms. Finally, the correlative conjunctions ("not only . . . but also") keeps unity and coherence. For, obviously, "but also" refers back to "not only."
Here again hip hop music can confuse an ESL student. But hip hop music is an art form. It has certain "rules," like other art forms. One of these rules is to use "taboo" words as a language in itself rather than
merely as an abuse of language.
I use the adverb "here" to start a new ¶ . (Adverbs of place and time are useful conjunctions, either for coherence within a ¶ or to link the ¶ before with the ¶ after. Within the ¶ I use repeat words (hip hop), a head or class noun under which I place "hip hop" as a member term ("art form"), and a pronoun ("it") to replace it. The class noun ("art form") is repeated too, as well as "rules," linked by a demonstrative pronoun ("these") referring to my first use of the word. "Taboo" refers back to the use of "curse words" in the previous ¶. The word "language" as a class noun also refers back to "curse words" in the previous ¶.
Besides, it is commonly accepted that people from one group can use words to name themselves, though these words would be offensive if others used them. To avoid repeating these words (many of which you know) I'll give as an example "stupid" or "ugly." A person can use these words against themselves, but it would be considered poor taste, if not offensive, to use them against others.
Again I use an adverb ("besides") to move from one ¶ to the next. The ¶ is ordered by using the class noun ("group") to refer back to "people," while the reflexive pronoun ("themselves") also refers back to "people." "Words" marks coherence by using a demonstrative pronoun ("these"), an adjective ("many") in place of the noun, a pronoun ("which") in place of the noun, and also by repetition.
All ESL students should be advised, when living abroad (in other countries) to avoid these words, including curse words and racial epithets (words naming ethnic or minority groups). Their use, in most situations, can cause trouble.
A new topic sentence is a reason to make a new ¶. Coherence is maintained by repeating "words," by using synonyms for it ("curse words" and "epithets"), by the use of a simple conjunction ("and"), and by the use of another pronoun ("their) referring back to the missing noun.
If avoided abroad, they should be avoided at home too, for the same reasons. There are many tourists and foreign residents in Taiwan who might be offended hearing these words, especially words naming ethnic groups.
Again, I might have stayed with the ¶ instead of starting a new one, but I prefer short ¶'s. My excuse for starting a new ¶ is the use of the commonplace, degree (more or less). "If it is true of X, then it is more true of Y." This use of logic allows a new ¶ for emphasis. Coherence is created within the ¶ and between this ¶ and the last ¶ by repeating the word "avoided," using the pronoun "they" to refer to "curse words" in the last ¶ , and by using a general class noun ("reasons") to refer back to more specific reasons in the last ¶. The pronoun, "who," refers back to "tourists" and "foreign residents," "these" refers back to "curse words," "words" is repeated, while "ethnic groups" replaces and refers back to the larger class of "words."
Don't be fooled by movies or hip hop culture to think that these words are acceptable in most situations. They're not. Movies are always a blend of realism and fantasy. Real situations are exaggerated.
Here is another example where I might have kept my first two sentences with my last ¶ instead of indenting a new one. Still, the change of focus is strong enough to justify a new ¶. But consider the 3rd and 4th sentences. These would be very weak in a ¶ of their own, since a new ¶ would focus on "movies" as a topic sentence, destroying coherence with the previous ¶. The reader would think the discussion was about movies instead of curse words. By keeping these sentences together with the first two, their coherence is greater.
Play safe. Use only words you hear spoken in formal debates or that
are used in the mainstream media.
Here I use an adverbial phrase to start a new ¶. Note that I omitted the adverbial conjunction ("Therefore," as in "Therefore, play safe"). This is a matter of style, not grammar. I wanted the adverb phrase to stand by itself, naked as it were, for rhetorical effect, or emphasis. For coherence, I repeat "words" from the last ¶ and replace it by a pronoun referring back to the noun, the main theme of the essay. In the final paragraph (just below), I use a single sentence for conclusion and emphasis.
As you can see, paragraphing cannot be divorced from the communication triangle and the goal of writers to present their text with the greatest clarity to their readers.
Fri Oct 1, 6:32 AM ET Op/Ed - USATODAY.com
The first question asked about any presidential debate is, who won. You won't find the answer here. That's up to every viewer.
A 3-sentence ¶ linked by key words highlighted in red. The next ¶ uses an antithetical conjunction ("But") to link itself with the previous ¶. "Debate" is repeated (synonymic repetition). The whole ¶ is a single sentence, really a transition ¶:
But after Thursday night's debate, voters were left with much to think about. President Bush and John Kerry - each impressively arguing his case - put on display two worldviews so different that the choice between them could affect everyone.
In shorthand, the choice is this: A president who will act independently and quickly, even at the risk of alienating allies or making a grievous mistake. Or one who will proceed more deliberately in concert with allies, potentially at the price of missing a crucial opportunity.
"Choice" refers to Bush and Kerry in the preceding ¶, while "president" is repeated and "one" is a pronoun replacement for Kerry's name. "Or" is a simple coordinate conjunction, linking words of equal value. "Treaties" is synonymically replaced by "global warning" and "arms control."
No president in the post-World War II era has acted unilaterally to the degree Bush has. He has spurned international treaties on global warming and arms control. Kerry favors both. Bush sharply criticizes international institutions such as the United Nations, which Kerry is more inclined to accept. Their differences - and the plusses and minuses of each - are perhaps best illustrated by the war on terror.
The above ¶ repeats "president" from the previous ¶, while most of the ¶ of 4 sentences is unified by repeating proper names. "United Nations" is a member of the noun it replaces ("international institutions), while "each" is a pronoun replacement for both Bush and Kerry.
Bush noted proudly Thursday night that in the weeks after 9/11, he didn't hesitate to strike back. He attacked terrorist camps in Afghanistan and rallied support from allies outraged by 9/11 and sympathetic to the U.S. It was exactly the right prescription, even if tactical errors allowed Osama bin Laden to escape. Bush said it is essential now for the U.S. to "stay on the offensive."
This ¶ repeats Bush's name from the previous ¶, while "Thursday night" refers to the opening ¶ introducing the debate. "Strike back" is later paraphrased (predicated, or put in different, more specific words) as "attacked" and "rallied." "It," by pronoun replacement, refers back to this thought, while "right prescription" is a synonymic replacement for "striking back." Bush's name is repeated and refers back to the first use of his name in the ¶.
Next ¶ continues with another adversative (antithetical) conjunction ("but") as last time. This "antithetical" pattern becomes second-nature to a good writer, who sees both sides of an issue as part of every issue. Especially a newspaper writer who doesn't have this skill is in trouble! After "but," "determination" is a paraphrastic replacement for "fighting back" in the previous ¶. "Mess" and "quagmire" synonymically tighten the ¶, "he" refers back to Bush, while "the debate" refers back to a debate already mentioned (that's the function of the "definite" article "the"). "Attack" is a verbal paraphrase of "striking back" in the previous ¶, while "it' is a pronoun replacement for "attack," and "the right choice" a synonymic replacement (what I sometimes call a paraphrastic replacement). "Iraqi dictator" refers back to "Hussein," while "Bush" repeats the proper noun used earlier. This ¶ can be analyzed in terms of topics too, such as "cause-effect" or antecedent-consequent" (before-after).
But the same single-minded determination also led to the current mess in Iraq (news - web sites). Bush decided to attack despite warnings from allies that it would turn into a quagmire. And he insisted again at the debate that it was the right choice, even though Saddam Hussein's supposed stockpiles of weapons of mass destruction - the primary reason for going to war - were never found. The Iraqi dictator, Bush said, would eventually have revived his weapons programs and armed terrorists.
The next ¶ repeats Kerry's name (as well as Bush's name), then by, pronoun replacement ("who"), links Kerry with his vote; "strike Iraq" repeats words in the previous ¶; "the war" refers back to the specific war already discussed, while "a colossal error of judgment" is a paraphrastic synonymic replacement of "war." "Saddam" is repeated, as is "9/11" twice. "He" replaces Kerry's name, "it" refers back to the strike on Iraq. Several pronoun replacements for Kerry are used and one possessive replacement ("his"). "That" points to "the war on terror," synonymically (paraphrastically) replaced as "cause." "Terrorism" is a synonymic replacement of "terror."
Kerry, who voted to authorize Bush to strikeIraq, called the war "a colossal error of judgment" - waged even though Saddam had no connection to 9/11. He argued that it impedes the war on terror. Instead, he said, the U.S. should be laser-focused on destroying the masterminds behind 9/11 and others who resort to terrorism. He stressed his commitment to enlist allies in that cause.
The other ¶'s, not commented upon, follow:
The view here is that Kerry's analysis of Iraq is on the mark. But it is an observation made in hindsight - a fact Bush jumped on repeatedly Thursday by charging Kerry had shifted his opinion for political advantage.
The question that matters now is which candidate's world approach will be more effective going forward.
On Iraq, the two candidates' sound-bite policy prescriptions differ little: get more outside help, train more Iraqi security forces and make sure elections go ahead.
But for the war on terror and the U.S. approach to the world more broadly, the choice is stark: Act in our own self-interest, then try to persuade allies to follow. Or try to enlist allies' support before acting.
The difference can affect every American. The debate left every voter with a choice.
By JIM FITZGERALD, Associated Press Writer
MOUNT KISCO, N.Y. - Actor Christopher Reeve, who soared through the air and leapt tall buildings as "Superman," turned personal tragedy into a public crusade, becoming the nation's most recognizable spokesman for spinal cord research — from a wheelchair. Reeve went into cardiac arrest Saturday while at his Pound Ridge home, then fell into a coma and died Sunday at a hospital surrounded by his family, his publicist said. He was 52.
The first ¶ introduces Reeve as subject. Note how simple an appositive is ("Actor, CR"), saving a lot of words on a relative phrase: "who is an actor"). The only other comment I'll make is that the writer might have made a 2d ¶ at "Reeve went into cardiac arrest," etc. but chose not to. Repetition of Reeve's name would have established coherence.
His advocacy for stem cell research helped it emerge as a major campaign issue between President Bush and his Democratic opponent, John Kerry. His name was even mentioned by Kerry during the second presidential debate Friday evening.
Here a simple possessive pronoun links ¶2 with ¶1.
Reeve, left paralyzed from the neck down after a riding accident and who pushed for funding to help others like himself, was hospitalized the following day. In the last week Reeve had developed a serious systemic infection from a pressure wound, a common complication for people living with paralysis.
Repetition of Reeve's name establishes coherence in this new ¶.
Dana Reeve, Christopher's wife, thanked her husband's personal staff of nurses and aides, "as well as the millions of fans from around the world who have supported and loved my husband over the years."
Another possessive, links this ¶ with the last ¶. Here the appositive form is reversed; but the logic is, "Christopher's wife, Dana Reeve," etc.
Reeve's life changed completely after he broke his neck in May 1995 when he was thrown from his horse during an equestrian competition in Culpeper, Va.
Yet another possessive linking of ¶'s.
Enduring months of therapy to allow him to breathe for longer and longer periods without a respirator, Reeve emerged to lobby Congress for better insurance protection against catastrophic injury and to move an Academy Award audience to tears with a call for more films about social issues.
Despite the first clause, the subject is "Reeve," repeating his name for coherence.
"Hollywood needs to do more," he said in the March 1996 Oscar awards appearance. "Let's continue to take risks. Let's tackle the issues. In many ways our film community can do it better than anyone else. There is no challenge, artistic or otherwise, that we can't meet."
Here a quote is used for a new ¶.
He returned to directing, and even returned to acting in a 1998 production of "Rear Window," a modern update of the Hitchcock thriller about a man in a wheelchair who becomes convinced a neighbor has been murdered. Reeve won a Screen Actors Guild (news - web sites) award for best actor.
Pronoun replacement refers back to Reeve in previous ¶'s.
"I was worried that only acting with my voice and my face, I might not be able to communicate effectively enough to tell the story," Reeve said. "But I was surprised to find that if I really concentrated, and just let the thoughts happen, that they would read on my face. With so many close-ups, I knew that my every thought would count."
Another quote ¶.
In 2000, Reeve was able to move his index finger, and a specialized workout regimen made his legs and arms stronger. He also regained sensation in other parts of his body. He vowed to walk again.
A time change changes the ¶.
"I refuse to allow a disability to determine how I live my life. I don't mean to be reckless, but setting a goal that seems a bit daunting actually is very helpful toward recovery," Reeve said.
Another quote, another ¶. These quotes are coherently at lower levels of generality: "He vowed to walk again" in last ¶ is taken to a lower level of specificity in this ¶.
Before the accident, his athletic, 6-foot-4-inch frame and love of adventure made him a natural, if largely unknown, choice for the title role in the first "Superman" movie in 1978. He insisted on performing his own stunts.
Another time change, another ¶.
Although he reprised the role three times, Reeve often worried about being typecast as an action hero.
Conjunction ¶. However, I don't like separating this ¶ from the next one, especially since there's only one sentence in this ¶.
Though he owed his fame to it, Reeve made a concerted effort to, as he often put it, "escape the cape." He played an embittered, crippled Vietnam veteran in the 1980 Broadway play "Fifth of July," a lovestruck time-traveler in the 1980 movie "Somewhere in Time," and an aspiring playwright in the 1982 suspense thriller "Deathtrap."
Here, lower levels of generality illustrate the topic idea ("escape the cape").
More recent films included John Carpenter's "Village of the Damned," and the HBO movies "Above Suspicion" and "In the Gloaming," which he directed. Among his other film credits are "The Remains of the Day," "The Aviator," and "Morning Glory."
A ¶ of time again ("more recent").
Reeve was born Sept. 25, 1952, in New York City, son of a novelist and a newspaper reporter. About the age of 10, he made his first stage appearance — in Gilbert and Sullivan's "The Yeoman of the Guard" at McCarter Theater in Princeton, N.J.
Here a simple repetition of Reeve's name starts a new ¶. Note how the essay is organized, from present to past. We'll study organization ideas later. But organization can be from front to back, back to front, least to most important, above to below, past to present, present to past, or other variations of time and space order.
After graduating from Cornell University in 1974, he landed a part as coldhearted bigamist Ben Harper (news) on the television soap opera "Love of Life." He also performed frequently on stage, winning his first Broadway role as the grandson of a character played by Katharine Hepburn (news) in "A Matter of Gravity."
Another time ¶ ("After").
Reeve's first movie role was a minor one in the submarine disaster movie "Gray Lady Down," released in 1978. "Superman" soon followed. Reeve was selected for the title role from among about 200 aspirants.
Possessive noun changes subject ("first movie"), for new ¶.
Active in many sports, Reeve owned several horses and competed in equestrian events regularly. Witnesses to the 1995 accident said Reeve's horse had cleared two of 15 fences during the jumping event and stopped abruptly at the third, flinging the actor headlong to the ground. Doctors said he fractured the top two vertebrae in his neck and damaged his spinal cord.
Repeat of Reeve's name introduces new topic: his sports activities.
While filming "Superman" in London, Reeve met modeling agency co-founder Gae Exton, and the two began a relationship that lasted several years. The couple had two sons, but were never wed.
Repeat of Reeve's name, linking him to girlfriend; then, by cause-effect, children.
Reeve later married Dana Morosini; they had one son, Will, 11. Reeve also is survived by his mother, Barbara Johnson; his father, Franklin Reeve; his brother, Benjamin Reeve; and his two children from his relationship with Exton, Matthew, 25, and Alexandra, 21.
Time ¶ again ("later"), with repeat of Reeve's name making obvious coherence. Note that repetition is the basis of all art, including repeating sounds in poetry, repeating shapes in painting, repeating phrases in music, etc. The Bible would be dull without repetition.
No plans for a funeral were immediately announced.
This is a "generic" ending, like a "moral" is a generic (kind of) ending for a fable, thus getting a ¶ to itself. Another example is a movie or television review, with the final ¶ reporting theatre location and time or television channel and time. "Star Wars is now showing at the Bijou Theatre on Main Street. First showing starts at 10:00 a.m." "The Jay Leno Show can be seen Monday to Friday evenings starting at 11:30 p.m. on Channel 4."
A few months after the accident, he told interviewer Barbara Walters that he considered suicide in the first dark days after he was injured. But he quickly overcame such thoughts when he saw his children.
¶ of time ("after"). But this ¶ is poorly placed. The possessive pronoun is too far from the last mention of Reeve's name and the ¶ mixes up too man time periods, adding confusion.
"I could see how much they needed me and wanted me... and how lucky we all are and that my brain is on straight."
Quotation ¶. Lower level of generality from last ¶. But this ¶ too is out of place; although effective in the middle of the essay, it is too weak for an ending.
Below is a style analysis of epitome by editing.
Epitome reduces a composition by taking away from style but keeping essential content. This will (to some degree) be from the writer's point of view. So the best way is to model the exercise as I did below. I have highlighted in blue and
I have not, however, added coherence strategies, for lack of time. Only in a few cases did I show coherence by adding bracketed words [ ] in the text.
Finally, this is by no means the final draft of an epitome. For example, the examples that Cosby gives could be boiled down or reduced to essence, if one finds the right words.
Here is an example where the ideal is the reverse of what you're are usually asked to do, that is, go to lower levels of generality. In epitome, you must learn to go to higher levels of generality. Instead of warning oneself, "Be specific!" one warns oneself, "Be general! Omit, omit, omit! Of course the good writer knows when or what to omit.
Now a student in my office was still confused about the difference between summary and epitome. Let me address this issue.
First, words can sometimes be used synonymously. Writers decide on shades of meaning if they choose.
Some writers write, for example, "epitome, or summary," as if those words meant the same. That's fine.
Just like one can see no difference between Heavy Metal music and Rock 'n' Roll if one chooses. But to some, HM and Rock are two completely different types of music.
A dictionary of HM for example would not list Elvis Presley. But a dictionary of Rock might list both Elvis and HM artists. A shorter book on Rock might list Elvis, but no HM bands.
The writer/speaker often chooses to find things similar or different, based on convenience or purpose.
Consider:
"Capital punishment, my friends, is no different than murder. If we preach against murder in our daily lives, in our schools and churches, how can we turn around and murder people in the name of law and justice?"
But compare:
"Capital punishment is by no means the same as murder. Murder is committed as a means of injustice. It is the unjust taking of a life for personal gain. But capital punishment is, as the words suggest, a penalty against unjust citizens. It is not for personal gain at all, but for the greater gain of the whole community, warning that the lives of our fellow citizens are all equally sacred before God and that no man has the right to interfere with the lifespan of his fellow."
Note that the last sentence above is a little long for modern readers, but it holds together coherently. In a real speech, I would break the flow in bits:
"It is not for personal gain. It's for the greater gain of the community. [Note I don't like "whole," a useless adjective.] It warns us all that the lives of our fellow citizens are sacred before God. [Note I got rid of the useless adverb and determiner.] No man has the right to interfere with the lifespan of his neighbor."
So "eptiome and summary" can be seen as the same or different. But it's not hard to argue that the two are different.
A summary reduces not only by style but by content too. It aims for much higher levels of generality than does an epitome.
There are differences among summaries too, but these are merely matters of published length. A TV Guide could summarize a movie in one sentence:
"The Terminator. A robot is programmed to destroy the lives of people to prevent the birth of unwanted leaders in the future. Starring Arnold Schwarzenegger."
This summary can be enlarged depending on the space allowed or the purpose of the publication. For example, some evaluation might be included, reference to the director, interesting facts, etc.
Still, there's no question of coming close to an epitome, which would include the essence of the movies details, specific highlights, etc. in reduced form. A longer summary would look like this:
"The Terminator. The first of the Terminator films and still the best. A robot is programmed to destroy the lives of people to prevent the birth of unwanted future leaders. The film combines social commentary and fast action in an effective way. Superb special effects and well-crafted scenes. The screenplay includes funny dialogue and political commentary. A must-see for fans of action flicks. Well acted, with Arnold Schwarzenegger in one of his best roles as the killer terminator. Competently directed by James Cameron."
Now an epitome of the movie would reduce the plot but keep the basic story and even much dialogue. It would be too long to give as an example here. So instead, I will give an epitome of Bill Cosby's Musings. First, by contrast, I include a summary:
"Gerald Boyd questions comedian Bill Cosby's criticism of black subculture values, which Cosby argues leads to one-parent families, substandard education, and poverty. Boyd claims the media has misused these comments instead of taking a closer look at the causes of the problems, such as culture values that encourage pregnancy among young black girls."
Note the higher level of generality involved. An epitome would look like this:
Recently, comedian Bill Cosby accused black families of poor parenting. Typically, the media exposed these comments with little interest in their causes.
Cosby accused black parents of exposing their children to obscene rap music, while spending more money on their children's fashionable clotheswear than for educational aids.
Black mothers were castigated for promiscuous sex, leading to fatherless families. Despite unusual names black mothers give their children, the children end up in jail. Cosby concluded that black people must stop playing the role of victim.
Studies show that single parents raise half of black children, while ten million back Americans live below poverty level. School dropout rate among black children is nearly double that of whites. Black teenagers are also more likely to get pregnant or end up in jail.
But the causes are ignored. Leon Dash, former reporter for The Washington Post, who studied black subculture, concluded that pregnancy was a status symbol among young black girls.
Boyd concludes the media should explore such causes instead of just exposing the problem.
BILL COSBY'S MUSINGS
By Gerald Boyd
For weeks, comedian Bill Cosby has been attacking the parenting
failures and personal values of some African-Americans, and it's been
easy to turn his comments into a big story. In fact, it's been too easy.
Instead of using Cosby's assertions as a starting point for a serious
examination of what is really going on in the lives of African-Americans,
and especially the urban poor, news organizations have presented them
with little if any scrutiny. Occasionally, they have brought on
predictable talking heads to debate his charges, but not in a way that
provides real illumination or clarity.
It's the same old song. When it comes to matters involving race or
class, the media often opt for the superficial, rather than expending the
time and resources to determine what really is happening. That's the
case in terms of Cosby's remarks.
The charges, in a number of forums and media outlets, have been
explosive. He has said of black parents: "Lower economic people are not
holding up their end in this deal. They are not parenting. They are
buying things for kids -- $500 sneakers for what? And won't spend $200
for 'Hooked on Phonics.'" And of black women: "Five, six children -- the
same woman -- eight, 10 different husbands or whatever. Pretty soon,
you are going to have DNA cards to tell who you are making love to. You
don't know who this is. It might be your grandmother." And of black
youth, he said: "... with names like Shaniqua, Taliqua and Mohammed
and all of that crap, and all of them are in jail."
Such rantings have made for great sound bites with Cosby fuming
about maladies common to black communities. He puts the onus on
blacks themselves, arguing that they have to stop playing the role of
victim.
Parents are obviously at least partly responsible for the success of
their children -- a point Cosby has hammered home in the media. But
why some are falling down on the job is the real issue here. To suggest
that's it's simply a lack of will is superficial, at best.
News organizations give us Cosby blasting obscenity-laden rap being
played by parents on their car stereos with children seated in the back,
or kids wearing their hats backward and their pants swinging low. But
does any of this really explain why the problems plaguing minorities
continue to exist from one generation to the next?
To say that these issues are complicated hardly begins to describe the
challenge the media face in trying to explain what is really happening.
News organizations encountered a similar test in the 1960s as they
sought to present the story of race in America. But in many ways that
challenge was tame. Race was a story full of heroes and villains, and
blacks wanting and deserving to be treated as equals. Today, the story of
race is one full of paradoxes. On some fronts, there has been clear
progress, yet too many blacks have not just been left behind, but are not
even in the game. Blacks are tired of having to explain their thinking to
whites, and whites are tired of having to listen.
In today's world, according to the Joint Center for Political and
Economic Studies, single parents now raise more than half of black
children. That's one reason why almost 10 million African-Americans
are living below the poverty level with annual incomes of less than
$15,000. Children who complete high school are likely to go to college,
but the percentage of blacks dropping out is nearly double that of whites.
And black teenagers are far more likely to become pregnant than their
white counterparts, or to end up in jail.
Those are the facts, or the headlines. But they say little about the why
-- and more important, [or] what can be done to end such woes.
Once Leon Dash, then a reporter at The Washington Post, spent more
than a year in a D.C. housing project to explore why teenage girls were
becoming pregnant at an alarming rate. What he found was surprising
and revealing.The [that] teenagers regarded motherhood as a badge of honor
rather than the yoke it would become. That's the kind of reporting we
need today.
It's great that such a prominent figure as Cosby would call attention
to some of the critical issues overlooked by a media now dwelling on war,
politics and international strife. If only the media would take his cue and
dig beneath the surface, they would be doing a far better public service
than simply airing some provocative sound bites.
Cynthia Tucker
Across the country, middle-class black Americans are applauding comedian Bill Cosby's insistent campaign to draw attention to the bad habits and poor choices that limit black achievement. There has been little disagreement about his main points -- that drug use, poor classroom performance and the embrace of outlaw culture have done nothing but cement the black underclass at the bottom of American society. An ethic that dismisses serious scholarship as "a white thing" has handicapped middle-class black kids, too.
In early September, Cosby spoke at a Washington forum sponsored by the Congressional Black Caucus (news - web sites) Foundation, where he criticized parents who allow their children to be "managed with a cell phone" and who don't keep up with their children's schoolwork. According to published reports, his remarks were warmly received. After the forum, Al Sharpton (news - web sites) credited Cosby with creating a "sea change" by speaking out publicly on a previously taboo topic.
There is plenty of precedent for Cosby's plain-spokenness. Throughout the first half of the 20th century, accomplished blacks routinely policed the behavior of their less-polished brethren, urging thrift, moderation, tidiness. (Much of that conversation, however, went unnoticed by white America.)
It was only during the 1960s, when civil rights legislation was gaining traction, that the black intelligentsia clamped down on any public acknowledgment of black dysfunction. Civil rights leaders believed any admission of black failure would damage the movement. A later generation of "black power" activists denounced any black critic of black failure as a race traitor.
Already, black immigrants are challenging native-born black students for prestigious slots in Ivy League schools. In June, according to The New York Times, several prominent black academics pointed out that about two-thirds of Harvard University's black undergraduates are black immigrants, children of immigrants or children of biracial marriages. Researchers studying black enrollment at several other exclusive schools, including Princeton and the University of Pennsylvania, report that about 41 percent of their black students fit the same demographic profile.
It's no great surprise that immigrants and their children do well. Regardless of national origin, immigrants tend to be resourceful strivers.
But black parents ought to note this, as well: The success of black immigrants strongly suggests that race is no great barrier to achievement. While many black activists contend that there is still a grave disadvantage in being the descendant of slaves, it is hard to see what that could be. Yes, our ancestors suffered. But the 21st-century racist aims his hate at the color of our skin -- not at where we came from or who our grandparents were.
Racism notwithstanding, if a black Antiguan can get high SATs, a black Atlantan should be able to earn them, too.
Repetition by subordination.
Hypernymy
Repetition by superordination.
Synonymy
Repetition by identity.
Antonymy
Repetition by opposition.
Meronymy
Repetition by class to member.
Holonymy
Repetition by part to whole.
Metonymy
Thousands of years ago, the Greek philosopher, Aristotle, listed “topics” of invention, supposed to help the speaker (writer) discover ways to build an argument. These topics are still useful today. Especially in combination with other topics, they are useful to generate (or come up with) ideas. Here is an example, mostly using the subject of music. These are mostly very short examples to illustrate each topic without taking up too much space. But of course all of these topics, especially in combination with others, can be used for many pages at a time:
DEFINITION
“Jazz is a syncopated, improvised music: it has an irregular beat and is mostly made up during performance."
DIVISION
Whole and Parts
“There are many kinds of jazz, including Big Band and Cool jazz. Big Band jazz is,” etc.
"There are many kinds of music, such as classical, show music, soul, rhythm and blues, and rock 'n' roll. Among these jazz has a special distinction. The reason is," etc.
Subject and Adjuncts
"Winter will come soon. There will be cold bodies, frozen lakes, unheated homes, a want for food. So let us end this war soon."
COMPARISON
“Big Band is a more popular and danceable kind of jazz, while Cool jazz is more personal and serious.”
DEGREE
“Big Band jazz is more likely than is Cool jazz to please listeners who enjoy a good tune.”
CAUSE/EFFECT
“Big Band jazz developed from the culture of the radio and dance hall.”
ANTECEDENT/CONSEQUENT
“If Big Band jazz is to return to favor, the social conditions must change.”
CONTRARY
“In many ways, the audience for Big Band jazz is opposite to those who like Cool jazz.”
CONTRADICTION
“If you can’t dance to it, it is not Big Band jazz.”
POSSIBLE/IMPOSSIBLE
“Big Band jazz was impossible before the big dance hall was established and cannot return without the return of those dance halls.”
PAST FACT/FUTURE FACT
“It was young people who made Big Band jazz popular. However, since young people today are more interested in different kinds of dances, such as hip hop, it is unlikely the Big Band era will return.”
TESTIMONY
Authorities
“The critic, Tom Adams, called Cool Jazz the greatest musical movement of the 50s.”
Witnesses
“Those alive during the 40s will tell you how important the dance hall was to them.”
Proverbs
“As someone once said, ‘Jazz is whatever you think it is.’”
Rumors
“Some even say that Big Band jazz helped many through the difficult times of World War II.”
Oaths
“My father swears that Benny Goodman was the greatest musician he ever heard.”
Documents
“If you look on the label, you’ll see the word ‘jazz’ written very clearly. This proves that the music is considered jazz by the record company.”
Laws
“According to the government, Big Band music must be classified as entertainment, not a necessity.”
Precedents
“If Duke Ellington’s music was considered jazz, then so is Woody Herman’s.”
Supernatural
“When I listen to Glenn Miller, I know in my heart that it’s jazz.”
NOTATION AND CONJUGATES
“Some say that ‘jazz’ originally meant to ‘dance.’ This shows the close relationship between early jazz and dancing.”
JUDICIAL (justice/injustice)
“It is only fair and right that he should be compensated for the losses he suffered.”
DELIBERATIVE (the good, unworthy, advantageous, disadvantageous)
“It’s good that we increase student enrollment in our colleges. It is unworthy of our leaders to invest money in other areas of life when it is far more useful to invest in student welfare. A culture without an educated citizenry has many problems.”
CEREMONIAL (virtue, vice)
“He was a decent man, willing to help others and never jealous of another’s success.”
There are three kinds of proof, including logic (logos), feeling (pathos), and character (ethos). By giving the Greek terms, you may remember these three in their rhymed pattern: logos, pathos, ethos.
Logos concerns logic, organization of ideas. Pathos concerns moving your audience, making them feel something about your ideas. And by ethos you present yourself as a reasonable character (ethical, good, righteous). Ethos is of course a relative term. In some situations, seeming superior may be desirable to increase your image; in other situations, seeming humble may be desirable. There is no hard and fast rule in rhetoric. Aristole did not believe in a hard and fast rule for persuasion: anything was possible and therefore one had to learn how to argue any point of view, depending on one's own needs, the audience, their emotions, their education level, etc.
A simple example regarding capital punishment:
"My friends (ethos: regarding others as friends and being seen as one in turn), I'm not an educated man (ethos: humility). But I do know what it means when a mother loses a child (pathos). It takes no education to observe a mother's grief over a child she will never see again, touch again, hear again (ethos, pathos, plus use of the scheme called epistrophe, repeating the same word three times "see again, touch again, hear again." This is also an example of parallelism, using the same grammatical structure [verb + again] three times). To lose a child is bad enough. But to lose a child in a senseless killing is beyond grief and touches madness (antecedent/consequence: what comes before and what follows, but not proved [cause-effect], only presumed, assumed).
Now we cannot make things right again by bringing this woman's son back to life. But we can make things right by bringing the man who killed him to justice. (logos; reason; antithesis or contrary; opposed ideas)
And who are we to say this mother's child is not worth a man's life? (Rhetorical question [erotema], suggesting a statement of fact but not insisting on it [ethos, character]: I respect you too much to make up your mind for you; I'll let you make up your own mind). Should we, while letting this mother's murderer live, compound her grief with injustice and insult the memory of her child by giving less than the full justice due him? (Ethos; pathos)
Now some may call this murder, but I call it justice (contrary, antithesis). Some may call it wrong to take another's life for any reason, even in the name of justice (definition: defining the word "wrong"). But I say it is right to speak on behalf of the dead who have been deprived of speech. And what does the Bible say about this matter? (Testimony, quoting others.) "You shall not let the murderer live." (Law; Bible law).
This boy's death calls out, in the son's blood but also in the mother's tears, for the death of the man who killed him (pathos, logos; antecedent/consequence: the boy's death calls out for death; but this is not proved by the speaker, merely suggested; obviously death is not necessary for justice). But I will not make that decision for you. You are just people. I will let you make that decision for yourselves. Goodnight. (Ethos: character; the speaker is decent; he respects others and they will probably respect them.)"
This composition could be developed to last for hours, with the proper combining of different topics of invention.
Regarding the five parts of rhetoric:
1. Invention: coming up with ideas by using the topics.
2. Arrangment of these ideas in proper order, basically Introduction, Beginning, Middle, End, Conclusion.
3. Language (style): using the correct language to express your ideas. An important part of style is called decorum, or suiting your style to the occasion, audience, etc. This includes tone too (sarcasm, humor, wit, gravity [seriousness], etc.).
4. Memory. At a time in history when speaking was more basic than writing: Remembering the speech. Today this means to use verbal or picture notes that remind you of main points of the speech. In the past it meant ways to memorize an entire speech by connecting each part of a speech to different parts of a building; so when one looked at the door of a church, one remembered the introduction of the speech; when one mentally went into the church and looked at the ceiling, one remembered the second part, etc.
Memory also means remembering many useful texts that one can use at the best (most appropriate time). By knowing Shakespeare, the Bible, Lao-tze, Chuang-tze, Li-po, etc. one can use what one has remembered.
Finally, memory means the memory of your audience and aiding them to remember. This is done by, for example, saying "First . . ."
"Second . . . " etc. or by such means as "To sum up" "Let me remind you," "As I said earlier," etc.
RICHARD DE CANIO
The word "commonplace" is a term translated from the Greek, topoi, familiar in English words such as "topic," "topical," "topography," etc, all meaning "place." The English word, "topic," however, has a slightly different, but derived, meaning.
A commonplace is then a "place" from which one "commonly" draws ("discovers") arguments or ideas, like a thesaurus, or treasury. In the same way, a "topic," in the modern sense, allows the writer to draw or discover ideas: "What can I say about Kaohsiung that's interesting?"
"Discovery" ("inventio," in Latin, from where we get the English words "invention" and "inventive") means finding ideas. One finds ideas the way one finds butterflies or rocks, by going to the "places" where they are likely to be found.
These "commonplaces" may sound alien until one realizes that one uses "places" all the time; as, when shopping, one uses family members or rooms in one's house as "places" where ideas (a shopping list) may be discovered: Baby: milk formula, pacifier, diapers, cotton balls, etc. Teenage daughter: A-mei CD, Dragonball comic, Coca-Cola, donuts, etc. Brother: shaving cream, razor blades, beer, scotch, panadol, etc.
Aristotle simply made these places general, for general arguments, hence, "common places." He listed these places in two kinds: common and special. Common places (commonplaces) are places common to any argument. Special places are places special to a certain speech, such as forensic (the law courts), deliberative (a lawmaking body or congress), or ceremonial (praising someone).
The most important common topics or places to find arguments are:
1. Definition. This can also be called "description" in descriptive essays. This is of main importance. The reader/hearer must know what exactly is meant by "execution," "education," "restaurant," and other words. Consider these words casually and they look easy to understand. But they are not, especially as the stakes are high, such as passing laws, paying taxes, etc. What does she mean by "education"? Does she mean grade school education? Special education? College education? Questions emerge differently depending on the subject, but there will always be questions. The good writer/speaker answers those questions before they are asked by a frustrated reader in the isolation of his home or as he sits shyly listening, but afraid to ask a question.
Take another example. "These people have no education." But what is meant here by education? Accreditation? Many people are high school dropouts but know more about art and literature than many who have accreditation. Go to a museum with a college-educated friend and it may be a boring experience as he rattles off the dates of all of Van Gogh's paintings and throws terms around that he learned in college courses. Then go with an "uneducated" friend who will excitedly talk about the colors and shapes of each painting encountered, saying, "I'd sell everything I own to have that hanging in my apartment."
Definition is also important in social studies. For example, a study of professed religious beliefs might be easily skewed by an unclear definition of "religious beliefs." Does this mean going to church? If so, the study can be easily skewed, since many people are deeply religious but do not attend church. Does it mean believing in Jesus? If so, the study can also be skewed, since many people are deeply religious yet do not believe in Jesus as God.
2. Division. This is another important comm place where ideas can be found ("discovered"). We used division above, where education was divided up into grade levels, as well as culture kinds (home reading, class reading, college-educated, self-educated, etc.) One divides music, religions, art, humor (Shakespeare's Twelfth Night but also Henny Youngman's jokes, like "Take my wife--please!"). A menu is divided into soup, salad, main course, dessert, beverage, etc. This is a very fruitful topic or place to expand ideas. The writer may think she has nothing to say about her home until she divides it into family members, pets, landscape, rooms, toys or hobbies, etc. Then she realizes she has too much to say. Now she uses definition to limit her essay's subject: "By home, here, I mean comfortable surroundings that make me feel, less like an orphan of the world, and more like a family member. So I will take you on a tour of the place I call home: the wonderful garden our family has cultivated for the last ten years; the patio where we sit after dinner and share each other's troubles and joys; and, above all, my private bedroom, where I have had so many great discoveries over the last ten years, involving not only great music and literature, but friendships that have faltered, but also flourished, over the passing years."
3. Comparison. This means showing the similarity or difference between things of the same kind; as comparing one restaurant with another, college prices in New York and Houston, weddings in Tokyo and Singapore. Comparison is basic and natural to the human species ("My daddy is bigger than your daddy," "My mom is more beautiful than yours," etc.).
4. Analogy. This means comparing two kinds, such as laboring in college and laboring in motherhood: "Just like the mother labors in pain and produces joy, so the student labors and ends in the joy of knowledge." As usual in rhetoric, the analogy can be foolishly chosen and weakens one's argument (logos) as well as one's character (ethos), ending in false pathos (making your audience laugh instead of cry, or cry instead of laugh). In Thomas More's Utopia, it is argued that future spouses should be examined before marriage the way horses are examined before purchase. One can respond that if horses are shot after breaking a leg, so, too (if the analogy holds) should people.
5. Degree (more and less). This is another common place where ideas can be found. Here one argues that one thing (a right, a gift, a pleasure, etc.) is more or less to be valued than another. "Leisure time is not as important as doing well in school. One will have plenty of leisure time once one has finished school." "Sleep is fine, but earning money is finer." "The right of a citizen to his own body should not include the right to destroy that body." This is in compact form, but, expanded, uses degree: "The right of a government to prevent someone to destroy himself is of greater social value than the right of that person over his own body." Or, to give another example of a compaced argument from degree: "Sure I love to drink, but not if it makes me sleepy or unable to finish my day's work." Expanded as degree, this would become: "My day's work is of greater importance to me than the momentary pleasure of a few drinks."
6. Contrary. This topic argues opposed ideas, proving one side by disproving the other. "People claim that capital punishment is a deterrent to murder. But how can that be, when countries where there is capital punishment have a higher rate of murders than countries where there is no capital law?"
7. Example. "Recently it was reported in The Tainan News that a four-year old boy was bitten by a stray dog." (I know there is no Tainan News.)
8. Testimony. "Statistics show that 83% of Taiwan citizens prefer dining out on Friday evenings."
9. Cause-Effect. One can argue either from cause to effect or from effect to cause. "Since the helmet law was enforced last year, motorcycle accidents have declined by 22%." (This combines cause-effect with testimony [statistics].) "Advertising is a main reason why young people smoke." (Cause-effect.) "Smoking has led to an increase in lung cancer over the last twenty years." (Effect to cause.)
10. Antecedent-Consequence. Similar to cause-effect, but more probable. It usually takes the "if-then" form: "If we allow students who fail the Entrance Exam, this will lower the level of education in our high schools." This has not been proved, but merely argued. In terms of the communication triangle, where cause-effect relies more on logos (reason), antecedent-consequence relies more on pathos (putting ideas into people's heads): "If we allow a Catholic to become president, how can we be sure the pope will not have undue influence over our government and that our president will be a mere tool of the pope?" (Of course, Kennedy was elected president in the US, so such an argument would not be as strong today.) "If we teach Hakka culture in our schools, our citizens will cease to have respect for Chinese culture." Again, this is not proved, but merely plays on the emotions of the audience.
11. Etymology. This argues from word origin or form. "The word "restaurant" comes from the French word, "restaurer," meaning to "restore." And this, in fact, is what Luigi's does. It restores one's appetite as well as one's pleasures in eating." "Tommy Starr calls himself a Rock and Roll singer, but his music neither rocks nor rolls." "A religion, as the word means, should "bind" us together; but this religion binds no one together; instead, it has divided us, one against another. I say we outlaw this so-called religion."
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